When Galileo and Kepler redefined to Heaven Frost how was the Catholic Church using in contributing to the art world and what new art forms in materials were being used during this time frame

During most of the 16th and 17th centuries, fear of heretics spreading teachings and opinions that contradicted the Bible dominated the Catholic Church. They persecuted scientists who formed theories the Church deemed heretical and forbade people from reading any books on those subjects by placing the books on the Index of Prohibited Books. A type of war between science and religion was in play but there would be more casualties on the side of science.

in the case of Kepler and Galileo theory an advancement of Nicholas Copernicus theory that the Earth revolved around the sun, a theory now known to be true. However, the Church disapproved of this theory because the Holy Scriptures state that the Earth is at the center, not the Sun. As the contents of the Bible were taken literally, the publishing of these books proved, to the Church, that Kepler and Galileo were sinners; they preached, through their writing, that the Bible was wrong.

Nicholas Copernicus (1473 - 1543), mathematician and astronomer, established a model of the universe with the sun, rather than earth, at its center. His most notable book, On the Revolutions of Heavenly Bodies, was highly controversial when it was published in 1543 but nevertheless became a fundamental turning point, in the history of Catholics were also forbidden to read the work. The insights of Copernicus were largely unrecognized in his lifetime. However, other developments and other scientists would keep the issue current and controversial for at least the next century. What came to be called the Copernican Revolution was not far away. Bringing credibility to it would require skill in mathematics. Increasingly, the scientists who were challenging long held beliefs would invoke God's mathematical design of nature to reconcile their faith with observable facts. Their efforts would be vigorously opposed by leaders of both Catholic and Protestant churches. Phrasing Copernicus utilized was "that if the earth were in motion then the observed phenomenon would result.' This phrasing is extremely important as it means the Copernicus himself could deny he believed it; he merely fashioned it in such a way that it was a hypothesis that would allow astronomers to correct mathematical errors they came across while observing the heavens. By writing in this fashion, Copernicus would have been able to deny that he himself believed in heliocentrism because he phrased it as nothing more than a hypothesis and as a result, would be able to slip past the Church's dislike of heliocentrism.

Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) made significant contributions to the scientific revolution, specifically by making improvements to the telescope and by making astronomical observations that supported Copernicus's findings. Galileo  began to look at nature in a more objective manner. Under him, nature came to be studied as an independent entity that happens to include humans. These methods centered on causes rather than natural laws. Galileo's sense of science was to investigate by doing an experiment, not by philosophizing about causes. Galileo's clashes with Aristotelians would soon be joined by a collision with the Catholic Church, of which he was a devoted member, in events that would dominate the rest of his life. Scholars who still rejected the Copernican universe, unable to reconcile the new observations of Galileo with an immovable earth, began to draw theologians into the debate. Galileo's purpose was not to prove one side of a scientific question, but to separate purely scientific questions from maters of faith in order that rational discussion might remain free. Many writers say that he wanted the Church to adopt the Copernican system, which is not only false but misses the whole point of the actual debate. Galileo did not want the Church to adopt either side of any scientific question and suppress the other as a matter of faith; if the Church were to suppress anything, he wrote, it should forbid any introduction of scriptural authority into debates that could be settled without it, by experience and reason alone.

One of the scientists who would bring mathematical rigor to the ideas of Copernicus was Johann Kepler (1571-1630).In 1589 he was admitted to the University of Tubingen, a place renowned for its theological seminar. Originally expecting to study theology and become a Lutheran minister, he later switched to astronomy and mathematics. While at Turbingen, Kepler was privately taught the theories of Copernicus by Mastlin. However, the subject was not allowed to be openly discussed. Kepler's teacher had calculated the orbit of a comet in 1577 and believed only the Copernican system could account for his observations. This was something that Copernicus had not done - nor had Ptolemy for his system. Kepler was guided, not always wisely, in this by Pythagorean ideas that nature was designed by rational mathematical principles. He came up with the idea that the circular orbits of the planets were spaced in ways that corresponded to the five Platonic solids - the cube, tetrahedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron and octahedron. His speculations were published in Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1596.Kepler lived in times where ones views on religion or any questioning of official church positions could get one into trouble. He showed courage in stating clearly his views during a period when others choose to be much more reserved. His promotion of the Copernican theory did much to hasten its acceptance. Kepler's courageous conduct, his molding of science, his three laws of planetary motion, and his adherence to mathematical support for his ideas are all items responsible for his importance