1) What ideas or strategies do you suggest law enforcement & CJ professional continue to do, or new ideas that should be tried to reduce or eliminate the type of crime that Andre Crawford committed? 2

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1) What ideas or strategies do you suggest law enforcement & CJ professional continue to do, or new ideas that should be tried to reduce or eliminate the type of crime that Andre Crawford committed?

2.Identify the crime reduction and prevention strategies. Understanding the theories and their explanations of why these criminal behavior happened will help you develop an approach that will reduce crime. Explain how the theory allows and justifies the ideas you put forth as strategies to implement, and why you expect the strategies to reduce or prevent crime. 

 

CASES OF RAPE

UCR/NIBRS statistics on rape, as currently reported, include cases of both rape and attempted rape. Statutory rape (sexual relations between an underage female minor and an adult male) and other sex offenses are excluded from the count of rape crimes. In 2016, 130,603 rapes were reported nationwide under the UCR Program. As Figure 11-5 shows, the risk of sexual assault victimization for both females and males varies greatly by age. Figure 11-6 details the age at the time of first rape victimization among females. Reports to the police of the crime of rape rarely reveal its true incidence. Recently, the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (a part of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) released its National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey. The most recent report shows that nearly 1 in 5 women (18.3%) and 1 in 71 men (1.4%) in the United States have been raped at some time in their lives, including completed forced penetration, attempted forced ­penetration, and alcohol- or drug-facilitated completed penetration. The survey also found that 51.1% of female victims of rape reported being raped by an intimate partner and 40.8% by an acquaintance.

 

Homicide

The terms homicide and murder are often used interchangeably, although they are not the same. Homicide is the willful killing of one human being by another, whereas murder is an unlawful homicide. Some homicides, such as those committed in defense of oneself or one's family, may be justifiable and therefore legal. In legal parlance, criminal homicide means "the causing of the death of another person without legal justification or excuse."

 

According to the Uniform Crime Reports/National Incident Based Reporting System (UCR/NIBRS), 17,250 murders were committed throughout the United States in 2016.3 The 2016 rate of criminal homicide was 5.3 people murdered for every 100,000 individuals in the U.S. population. As is the case with other major crimes, rates of criminal homicide in the United States increased between 1960 and the early 1990s, but then began decreasing until they reached levels not

 

Aggravated assaults

Based on statistics from the National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS), which tallies simple as well as aggravated assault, the majority of assaults reported by victims to NCVS interviewers are simple rather than aggravated assault. According to the NCVS, the overall decline in the nation's crime rate between 1993 and 2016 was mostly due to decreases in the rate of simple assault (58%). Almost one-half (47%) of male victims are assaulted by nonstrangers, whereas 71% of female victims are assaulted by nonstrangers in these cases. Whether it is an aggravated or simple assault, the largest category of nonstranger offenders of female victims is represented by friends and acquaintances followed by intimate partners. Weapons are present in less than one-fourth (23%) of all assaults, and when a weapon is present, it is most likely to be something other than a gun or a knife.

 

Hate Crimes

The collection of hate-crime statistics was mandated by the U.S. Congress with passage of the Hate Crime Statistics Act of 1990.196 Under the law, the FBI is required to serve as a repository for data collected on crimes motivated by religious, sexual orientation, ethnic, or racial prejudice. The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 mandated the addition to the category of hate crimes any crimes motivated by biases against people with disabilities, and the UCR Program began reporting such crimes in 1997.

 

According to the BJS, hate crimes (also called bias crimes) are characterized by "manifest evidence of prejudice based on race, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity, including where appropriate the crimes of murder, non-negligent manslaughter, rape, aggravated assault, simple assault, intimidation, arson, and destruction, damage, or vandalism of property."198 In 2009, President Barack Obama signed into law a bill that enhances the federal protection of gays by specifically adding acts of violence against gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people to the list of federal hate crimes.

Based on FBI statistics on hate crimes, 6,121 hate-crime incidents were reported in 2016.200 Of all the incidents reported 57.5% were motivated by racial bias, 17.7% by a sexual-orientation bias, 21.0% by religious bias. Bias against a disability accounted for 1.2% of single-bias incidents. Of the 4,720 hate crime offenses classified as crimes against persons in 2016, intimidation accounted for 44.7%, simple assaults for 35.7%, and aggravated assaults for 18.5%. Nine murders and 24 rapes were reported as hate crimes.

In addition to violent crimes, 2,519 hate crime property offenses occurred in 2016. The majority of these (76%) were acts of vandalism. Robbery, burglary, larceny-theft, motor ­vehicle theft, arson, and other offenses accounted for the remaining 24% of crimes against property. Forty-six percent of the 5,770 known offenders were white; 26% were black. The race was unknown for 18%, and other races accounted for the ­remaining known offenders.

(BELOW ARE THE THEORIES)

Trait Theory

In 1964, Hans J. Eysenck, a British psychologist, published Crime and Personality, a book in which he explained crime as the result of fundamental personality characteristics, or traits, which he believed are largely inherited.40 Psychological traits are stable personality patterns that tend to endure throughout the life course and across social and cultural contexts. They include behavioral, cognitive, and affective predispositions to respond to a given situation in a particular way. According to trait theory, as an individual grows older or moves from one place to another, his or her personality remains largely intact—defined by the traits that comprise it. Trait theory links personality (and associated traits) to behavior and holds that it is an individual's personality, combined with his or her intelligence and natural abilities,41 that determines his or her behavior in a given situation. Eysenck believed that the degree to which just three universal supertraits are present in an individual accounts for his or her unique personality. He termed these supertraits (1) introversion/extraversion, (2) neuroticism/emotional stability, and (3) psychoticism. Eysenck thought that people who score high on extraversion, neuroticism, or psychoticism are not easily condition or socialized, and thus commit more crime in adulthood.

Behavioral Theory

Behavior theory, the second main thrust of early psychological theorizing, built upon the concept of conditioned behavior. The idea that behavior could be "conditioned" or shaped was popularized through the work of Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), whose work with dogs won the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1904. The dogs, which salivated when food was presented to them, were always fed in the presence of a ringing bell. Soon, Pavlov found, the dogs would salivate as if in preparation for eating when the bell alone was rung, even when no food was present. Hence, salivation, an automatic response to the presence of food, could be conditioned to occur in response to some other stimulus, demonstrating that animal behavior could be predictably altered via association with external changes arising from the environment surrounding the organism. The kind of conditioning that Pavlov demonstrated, which is the association of a particular response to a conditioned stimulus, is referred to today as classical conditioning.

Social Bond Theory

An important form of social control theory was popularized by Travis Hirschi in his 1969 book The Crime Problem.30 Hirschi's approach was well received by criminologists and "epitomized social control theorizing for nearly three decades."31 Hirschi argued that through successful socialization, a bond forms between individuals and the social group, but when that bond is weakened or broken, deviance and crime may result. Hirschi described four components of the social

Social Process Theory

Social process theories of crime causation assume that ­everyone has the potential to violate the law and that criminality is not an innate human characteristic; instead, criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others, and the socialization process occurring as the result of group membership is seen as the primary route through which learning occurs. Among the most important groups contributing to the process of socialization are the family, peers, work groups, and reference groups with which one identifies because they instill values and norms in their members and communicate their acceptable worldviews and patterns of behavior.

Rational Choice Theory

Rational choice theory (RCT), a product of the late 1980s, mirrors many of the principles found in classical criminology. The theory, as described by Ronald V. Clarke and Derek B. Cornish,21 rests upon the belief that criminals make a conscious, rational, and at least partially informed choice to commit crime and employs cost-benefit analysis (as in the field of economics), viewing human behavior as the result of personal choices made after weighing both the costs and benefits of available alternatives. "[Rational choice] predicts that individuals choose to commit crime when the benefits outweigh the costs of disobeying the law. Crime will decrease when opportunities are limited benefits are reduced, and costs are increased."22 Figure 3-3 diagrams the steps that are likely to be involved in making a choice to commit a property crime. A somewhat different model can be applied in the case of drug offenders since most people who decide to deal drugs do so with an entrepreneurial spirit and often see their activities as a kind of rational business undertaking. Some, in fact, have been known to keep records of their transactions, to include profit- and-loss statements—and even computer-based spreadsheets in an effort to maximize profits.

In brief, rational choice theorists concentrate on "the ­decision-making process of offenders ­confronted with specific contexts," and have shifted "the focus of the effort to prevent crime from broad social programs to target hardening, environmental design or any impediment that would [dissuade] a motivated offender from offending."27 Twenty-five techniques of ­situational crime control can be identified, and each can be classified according to the five objectives of situational prevention. Figure 3-4 outlines those objectives and provides examples of each.