Summary of Burton Russel's unpopular essays..1= philosophy and politics 2=The future of mankind 3=on being modern minded 4=the function of a teacher 5= an outline of intellectual rubbish

1. This essay is an attack on the polititical consequences of Hegel's philosophy and a defence of Locke's philosophy of empiricism. After briefly explaining Hegel's belief in what Hegel called the Absolute Idea, Russell tells us that this philosophy had disastrous consequences in the political field. A philosophy which leads to such consequences is evidently something obnoxious, and it is really surprising how at one time this philosophy held a sway over the minds of intellctuals not only in Germany but even in Britain and America. Russell then brings out the merits in Locke's philosophy of empiricism which, he tells us, offer a theoretical justification on democracy. Locke also preached religious tolerantion, representative institutions, and the limitations of governmental power by the system of checks and balances. Russell concludes this essay by recommending empiricism not only on the ground of its greater truth but also on athical grounds. Empiricist liberalism is the only philosophy that can serve mankinds purposes in our times.

2. Here Russell visualizes the consequences of the next world war and expresses the view that only the establishment of a world-government can bring about lasting peace in the world. Russell would like the establishment of a world government to take place under the leadership of America for a civilized life, Russell means freedom of thought, freedom of inquiry, freedom of discussion, and humane feeling. Mankind has to guard against three dangers such as the extinction of the human race, a going back to barbarism and the establishment of a universal servile state, involving misery for the vast majority, and the disapperrance of all progress in knowledge and thought.

3. It has become a general tendency nowadays, says Russell, to adopt opinions which are current and to show a contempt for the past. When fashion alone dominates opinion, it becomes unnecessary for people to think for themselves. A mentally solitary life for an individual has become pointless nowadays, according to the modern standards. After criticizing the present day trend towards adopting ready made current opinions, Russell concludes tbe essay by pointing out the value of detachment and objectivity. A certain degree of isolation both in space and in time is necessary for the most intellectual work.. We must not sacrifice the independence of our minds merely to win the admiration of the crowd by holding opinions which have become current.

4. In this essay, we see Russell as an educationist. Russell is opposed to the rigid manner in which the state nowadays enforces its own ideology through the education is such as to produce fanatical bigots who are ignorant of the world outside thier own country and who are unaccustomed to free discussion.

As a result of the kind of education that is emparted to pupils in different countries, the spirit of cultural internationalism has recieved a severe setback. Education should never be dogmatic, and that is possible only if tje teachers are free to teach what they please and in the manner they think to be the best. Teacher are more than any other class of people, the guardians of civilization. If democracy survive, the teacher should try to produce in his/her pupils the spirit of tolerance which will enable them to understand people who are different from themselves.

5. This essay directed against irrationality. The ages of faith, says Russell, were ages of superstition, and so there was little evidence of rationality in the outlook of people. Priests have always propagated irratinal beliefs. The whole concenption of sin in the past was merely a manifestation of the susperstitious bent of mind. Similarly, the views relating to the resurrection of the body, the sacredness of human corpses, divorce, ect., were purely superstitious. Then there is a belief in the racial superiority of the white man over yje coloured people, while the scientific fact is that there is no difference between the blood of a white man. Russell is of the opinion that by observing a few simple rules mankind can avoid the deplorable consequences which afflict human lige because of irrational beliefs. Another desirable course is for human beings to conquer fear, because fear is the main source of superstition and one of the main sources of cruelty. Russell closes this essay on a frivolous note, saying that superstitions are not always dark and cruel but that often they add to the gaiety of life.