Typed critique of a lecture, newspaper article, documentary or podcast that pertains to a topic in Africana Studies, or issues and events in the Black community. Magazine articles will not be accepted.

A link to the newspaper article, podcast, documentary or lecture must be included.

 

Mass Media and the effect to Africana( Black Americans)

Explanation of Concepts:

In order to appreciate the subject properly, it is necessary to explain the following concepts.

Mass media refers to a diverse array of media technologies that reach a large audience via mass communication. The technologies through which this communication takes place include a variety of outlets. Broadcast media transmit information electronically via media such as films, radio, recorded music, or television. Digital media comprises both Internet and mobile mass communication. Internet media comprise such services as email, social media sites, websites, and Internet-based radio and television. Many other mass media outlets have an additional presence on the web, by such means as linking to or running TV ads online, or distributing QR Codes in outdoor or print media to direct mobile users to a website. In this way, they can use the easy accessibility and outreach capabilities the Internet affords, as thereby easily broadcast information throughout many different regions of the world simultaneously and cost-efficiently. Outdoor media transmit information via such media as AR advertising; billboards; blimps; flying billboards ; placards or kiosks placed inside and outside buses, commercial buildings, shops, sports stadiums, subway cars, or trains; signs; or skywriting.

Media refers to various channels of communication through which information (messages) are conveyed to audiences. They are the vehicles which transmit messages from the sender (encoder) to the receiver (decoder). Different professionals in the field of communication have proffered various definitions of media. Nwosu (1990) refers to traditional rural communication media as gongs, town criers, drums,

market and village for rituals and festivals.

Imperialism: This is the expression of overbearing tendencies of one country through which social,

cultural and economic harsh influences are spread over another country which suffers the harrowing

effects of such influences.

Cultural Imperialism: Cabral (1976) defines cultural imperialism as a "situation where foreign culture

dominates a local one such that the locals see their own culture as inferior to the foreign one".

Best and Kombol (2009), see cultural imperialism as "a process that brings societies into modem

systems. It is a process in which a dominant culture exerts pressure and force on other cultures that are

perceived to be of less significance even by members who belong to that culture."

 

The Genesis of Cultural Imperialism in Africa - pre-colonial era experience

The famous Trans-Atlantic slave trade created a big situation for culture contact in Africa. More than

eleven million Africans were shipped to slave in the plantations of western hemisphere, torn from their

roots and forcefully planted in a new land and strange environment.

Using Nigeria as a point of illustration, Nigeria's historical background would give a better understanding

of the issue in question. Two major influences affected Nigeria. Nigeria was-divided into two major

geographical regions, the North and the South. The north was influenced by Arabic and the south by

Europeans. Nigeria's experience with culture contact with continents outside Africa was on the platform

of trade. Kano in northern Nigeria was for over a hundred years the terminus which reached the

Mediterranean through North Africa. The Trans-Sahara route facilitated trade and culture contacts with

the Sahelian regions and the Middle East. Islam came to Northern Nigeria through the Middle East and

Islam being a way of life (culture) replaced much of the indigenous cultures in Northern Nigeria.

The Portuguese relationship with Benin in Southern Nigeria is important because it made a deliberate

attempt to culture transfers. Missionaries introduced Christianity to Benin. Culture contact with Britain

had the greatest and the largest abiding effect in Nigeria. Economy was at the heart of that contact. It

was the British economic interest which propelled Britain into its dominant role in the Trans-Atlantic

slave trade. In the words of Obi-Ani (2004, p.351) "it was the white man's greed that had propelled the

trade, their insatiable acquisitiveness, ruthless exploitation and callous indifference to the feelings of

others that have kept Africa perpetually underdeveloped". After the abolition of slave trade, it was British economic interest that sent British merchants/adventurers to look for raw material. Christianity also helped the penetration of foreign culture by projecting new perspectives and prospects to life through evangelization which though was never the prime motive as was clearly stated by Lugard (1926): "Let it be admitted at the onset that European brains, capital and energy-have not been and will never be expended in developing the resources of Africa (from motives of pure philanthropy) that Europe was in African for the mutual benefits of her own industrial class."

The media in use in the pre-colonial era were the traditional modes of communication which Wilson

(1998) cited in Kur (2009) classifies as "instrumental media, demonstrative media, iconographic media,

visual media, extra-mundane media and institution-al media". Their significance and the special role

they played could be examined in terms of (i) oral and literary tradition which involved the use of

folk culture expressed either in stories poems, plays, songs, proverbs, customs, rituals or rights.

(ii) In terms of the field of myths, legends and folk lore and (iii) in terms of puppet operas, comedians and

similar art forms (Kid, 1976).

Communication between the people and the colonial masters was through these various channels with

the aid of local interpreters. The use of folk media helped to animate critical awareness, communication

and cultural activity among the rural people. Folk operas presented in local languages were used as

means of cultural expression. These communication channels had limitations. They were only able to

reach small audiences and took longer time to disseminate information. But their greatest benefit was

that there was little or no disharmony in the people's culture.

 

Contemporary era of the Mass Media

In this era, new technology has become a driving force behind the movement towards culture contact.

The world's communication infrastructure has matured to a point that communication now holds sway

in information dissemination. Communication and information in this era are described as 'flowing on

the global information super highway'. Governments in developed nations are occupied in considering

ways to take advantage of these technological innovations in the field of mass media. There is a shift

from national to international perspective. The media giants, the transnational media corporations now

use the ploy of information free flow to perpetrate their dubious intentions in their exploit of the

developing countries. This has led to vulgarity in African culture. These technologically advanced nations

now make the developing nations a dumping ground for their media products. They bombard Africa

with all kinds of vulgar films, music with obscene lyrics, arts and other cultural contents which are alien

to African culture. This has been achieved through various channels and programmes some of which are

highlighted below:

Satellite Broadcasting: Satellite broadcasting also known as Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) is a

communication system that uses voice, schedule and the satellite dish. Owners of satellite dish receive

messages beamed from satellite stations via satellite positioned in orbit. Through such broadcasts,

television pictures and sounds are beamed round the world and into homes at all hours, regardless of

frontiers, prevailing norms and values or cultural sensitivities. It is the trend now for instance for families

to watch offensive, obscene films from far away countries that have no qualms about such films.

The technology has broken all frontiers, barriers, distances and all seasons. Gergen (2009 p.8) describes

the changes that occur as "technology alters our patterns of communication". In the past social

relationships were confined to the distance of an easy walk.

 

Mass Media effects and the black Americans

Central to any discussion of the effects of the mass media is the acknowledgement of the ubiquity of the mass media in American society. Statistics substantiate the media's pervasive presence; for example. Anterkans currently possess more than four radios per household, and circulation of daily newspapers exceed one per household. Moreover, almost all Nimes have one or more television sets, with about 20 percent of them linked with cable (Broadcasting Yearbook. 1983; Roberts, 1974). Americans make use of the media they have =mired. ..umer- ous studies indicate that adults report that use of the mass Emilia maims for over 50 percent of their leisure time, and children profess to watch television in excess of four bows per day (Com- stock et al.. 1978; Lee & Browne, 1981; Pearl. Bombast, & Lazar. 1982; Roberts. 1974). Indeed, it has been estimated that by the time the average child reaches adulthood, he or she will have spent more time watching television than in any other single activity except sleep (Lichen. Neale. & Davidson, 1973). Americans also place a great deal of credibility in the media, especially television, as news sauces. Two-thirds of the U.S. public rely on vision as its source of news, and almost half ranks television as the most believable news source (Broadcasting Yearbook. 1983). Black Americans' use of and credibility in the media are nolen extensive than that ci the general population. In fact, their use of radio and television exceeds that of whites (Bogart, 1972). in addition, Blacks rely on television, in particular. for various kinds of information. including consumer infermation and poMical news and information (Block, 197(% Sunman & Bwker, 1978). More- over, some Blacks report viewing television to obtain information on otter Blacks and the Black conmunity (Shosteck, 190). AU of the foregoing material underscores the presence and points to the potential idluence of the mass media. What have research and theory shown the general effects oldie media to be? The following section briefly elucidates a number of dimensions associated with media effects.

The Nature of Effects

Mass communication researchers have devoted an inordinate el amount of attention to the effects of the mass media.) This is 0 understandable since intuitively it appears obvious that hdixina-

tion is communicated with the egad of causing some effect, of shaping the attitudes, opinions, behavior of others (Roberts. 1974). Thus, the study of communication effects has historically been centenwt wound the stimulus response model of communication. That is, researchers sought evidence of a given message producing a specific response.

With the publication of several works which advano:d the notion that the media have little or no effect (Berelson, Lazarfeld, & McPhee. 1954; Klepper, 1960; Lazarfeld, Serelson, & Crud t. 1948) came the abandonment of the simile stimulus-response liamework. Replacing the assumption of powerhd media effects was a broader view of the effects of the media. Researchers and theorists lilac have begun to subscribe to the notion that the media's ability to make us aware of everts and persons beyond our inmediate experience or to stnicture cur conceptional "real- ity" may be one of the media's most simple yet potent effects. As Roberts (1974, p. 378) observes: "Although most of us will never set foot on the moon, participate in a Middle Eastern war, or experience a heart transplant, because of the informatim the mass media have made available, each of these events probably contributes to aspects of our image of the environment.

The ability of the media to focus public attention on events and individuals has for -reader consequences; agenda-settim research illwarates some of these consequences. Research using the agenda- setting framework asserts a direct causal relationship between the content of the media agenda and subsemunt putdic perception of what the important issues of the day are. As a result of this relationship. events and individuals gain in public similkone as they gain public atteutim (Baum & Frazier. 19%; Funkhouser. 1973; McCombs a maw, 1972; Shaw & McCombs, 1977). Thus, the media, through their effect on public awareness, are able to affect cognitive change amens kidividuals. In addition to bevies cognitive effects, the media may have effects on the behaviors and latitudes of media consumers. hni- tative performance by a viewer of a behavix seen on television is taken as evidence of media effects. The development or expectation from some- thing obtained from the print or broadcast media is also viewed as evidence of the effects of the media. Identification is another possible effect of the meths. This refersto a media user's involvement, through a psychological ship. with with a character appearing in a media presemation (Weiss,

190). The vicarious participation of the media user in the feelings and behavior of the chtuncter is viewed as evidence of the effects of the media. Mafia effects can be disowned along numerous other stuns. These These dimensions nut the gamut from learning a new fact or behavior from a newspaper article. for example, to emotimal arousal Mule viewing a television program- Also, the effects of mass-mediated information may be long-term or short-term. When one speaks ci the effects of the media, he or she alludes to a broad range of consequences that may occur as the reutl of exposure to a given piect of communication. These consequences range from increased awareness or knowledge to performance of an exhibited behavior to development of attitudes and expectations. White noting that the foregoing descrIption el media effects is not exhaustive, it should also be pointed out that the effects of the media are not monolithic. There are individual differences in media effects. A variety of demographic and sociopsychological variables, e.g.. needs, values race, age, and so forth, have been found to intervene betwen a media message and an indIviduars response to this message. (Dates, *910 Lee & Browne, 1%!; Shaw & McCombs, 1977; Weiss, l969). Moreover, media audiences choose the messages they will attend to and interpt these ines- sages within their personal fmzneoits of beliefs, attitudes, and experiences. Finally. ii must be noted that since the media do not operate In a vacuum, a given media message is seldom, if ever. the sole cause of an effect. With these caveats in mind, we now turn to an examination of the effects ct the media on Blacks. Before considering the effects of the media on Blacks, it may be instructive to briefly consider the manner in which Blacks have been portrayed in the media. Traditionally, the media have excluded Blacks from media presentations (Lamberl, 1965; Oi(dfly & Blo- omquisz, 1976: Seggar & Wheeler, 1973; Shucy, King, & Griffith, 1953; L3.S. Commission on Civil Rights, 1977). When Blacks are featured in the media, they are generally cast in subordinate, servile and comedic roles and other such narnw roles that show nothing of the diversity of Black life and culture. The Reverend Jesse Jackson recently referred to this in explaining his failure to attract white support in his bid to capture the Democratic presi- dential nomination. He noted that this falurc is partially due to "the five deadly ways" in which the media portray Blacks: "as less intelligent, less hardworking, less universal, iras patriotic, and more violent than we art" (Sherwuod, 1984). in short, Black portrayals in the media arc unflattering, misleading, and designed in such a manner as to reinforce stereotypes commonly associated with Blacks. What impact do the media have on Black viewers, listeners. and readers? Is the portrayal of Blacks identified above harmfUl t, Blacks? Many writers think so and a number of them have expressed the opiniolThi the media, particularly television, may have deleterious effects on Blacks. As an example, Clark (1971) argues that television damages Black self-concept by its name- cognition of Blacks. Similarly, Tan & Tan (1979) reasoned that since Blacks arc often portrayed negatively or are non-existent in television entertainment programming. Blacks viewing such pro- gramming may learn negative self-concepts. A great deal of the concern expressed about the portrayals uf Blacks and their families is related to the perceived negative impact that television has on Black children. Rosser (1971), for example, maintains that television sometimes hinders Black par- ents' efforts to teach pride and self-respect to their childeni by its glamonzanon of negative images. Powell (1982) provides a similar view in her assertion that the nonpresentation of Blacks on tele- vision is particularly destnjctive to Black children's self-concept because it denies the importance 'f their existence. in a discussion of the dysfUnctional personal attitudes that Black children may acquire from television. Jams (19.10) elabo- rated on how television may have a negative influence on Black youngsters' self-concepts. He maintains that "bccausc Blacks are alien shown in menial occupational roles, Black youths may acquire the impression that professional and leadership roles are our of the question for them." In sum, then, theorists and other writers arc emphatic in their contention that the media havc adverse effects on Blacks. Critical commentary, however, is in greater abundance than "hard data." What has scientific research shown the effects of the media to be on Blacks? The bulk of research on media effects and Blacks, like the critical commentary, focuses on Black children. This is under- standable since the media are more likely to have effects on children than adults. Clearly, childhood is a period during which individuals are especially dependent on others (or information and thus they arc particularly susceptible to the influence of mass- mediated information that assists in their cognitive and affective development (Bandura, 1969). Moreover, as Cmncr (1912) explains, television is especially powerful for children because early visual images and attitudes have tremendously more impact than later images and attempts to change attitudes. Black children are indeed susceptible to the effects of the media. especially television Nor only do Black children report watching television more, they arc also more likely to believe in the reality of television (Dates, 1980; Donohue & Donahue, 1977; Greenberg & Arkin, 1978). Moreover, Black children are more likely than other children to say that they identify with and imitate television characters (Dates, 1910; Nicholas, MeCarter, & Heckel. l971a, 1971b: Su-oman, 1983). The implications of the findings reported above are related to a consistently documented effect of the media: Black thildrcn do learn from television (Dales, 1910; Gerson. 1966; Greenberg & Atkin, 1978; Greenberg & Dominick. 1969; O'Bryazu & Corder- Bolz, 1978). Gerson (1966), for example, reports that Black ado- lescents usc the mcdi. to learn bow to behave wIth members of the opposite sex. Similarly, Greenberg & Atkins (1978) study indicates that Black children rely on television to learn how dif- fereni people act in different situations, as well as to find our about -, ecision-nmking, and pnmkm-s&ving. Pesioas research also suggests that Black childrtn learn behaviors from televised models (Nicholas, McCa,ler, & Hechel, 1971a, 1971b; Theka, 1971; Thelen & Soltz, 1969). The suggestion here ii that since Black children use the media for such diverse learning, the mcdl. certainly have the potential to play a major role in the socialization of Black children. The media also appear to have effects on learning In Black adults. There is evidence that Black adults learn frame television (Leckenby & Surlin, 1976); in particular, Blacks report using the political content of newspapers to learn about candidates for polit- ical office and to gain assistance in voting (Siroman & Becker. 1978). Blacks also report learning about Black psychology and the strengths of the Black family from the television menu-series "Roots" (Howar& Rothbart, & Sloan. 1978).