Test 1 - Review Vocabulary Microscope - types, uses and characteristics of each Metrics - basic units; meter, gram, liter Prefixes (smaller) - deci, centi, milli Prefixes (larger) - deka, hecto, kilo Microscopy unit - micron or micrometer; 1 millimeter = 1000 um Field of view Stain Microtome Petri dish, Agar Centrifuge Taxonomy Aristotle, Linnaeus Binomial Nomenclature Latin Kingdom - Phylum - Class - Order - Family - Genus -Species Genus species name Variety - Breed or Race 5 Kingdoms- characteristics of each Eukaryotic, Prokaryotic Motile, non-motile Heterotroph, Autotroph Parasitism (-), Mutualism (+), Commensalism (o) Pathogen Decomposer Viruses 5 traits and characteristics of life Metabolism Homeostasis Stimuli Nonliving, Dead Organic - C and H, Inorganic Carbohydrates - uses; -ose Monosaccharides - glucose, formula Disaccharides - sucrose Polysaccharides - glycogen (animal), starch (plant), Cellulose (plant structure), chitin (some animal structure) Isomer Dehydration synthesis, Hydrolysis Enzymes, -ase Lipids - fats, oils, waxes Saturated fat (solid), unsaturated (liquid), trans fat Cholesterol Protein - amino acids; 20 essential Peptide bond - C-N Nucleic Acids - DNA, RNA; uses Nucleotide - 5-carbon sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base DNA - spiral or double helix; like a twisted ladder RNA - coding for proteins Nitrogenous bases - A-T, C-G Surface area to volume ratio - single celled vs. multicellular cell - tissue - organ - system - organism Organelles Cell, plasma membrane; composition Cytoplasm Nucleus, Nucleolus Centrioles Mitochondria, Respiration Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi body Lysosomes Cell Wall Chloroplasts, Photosynthesis Vacuoles Differentiation Biochemistry 5 Functional Traits of Life 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Growth • For Unicellular (one cell) organisms, this is the increase in cell size prior to reproduction. • For Multicellular organisms, growth refers to an increase in an organism’s size, as the number of cells making up the organism increases. Obtain and Use Energy • All living organisms require an input of energy to power their activities. • Energy is the ability to do work. It is obtained from food, which they either make using the energy of sunlight or consume from the environment. • Chemical reactions convert that energy into usable forms. • The sum total of all these reactions is Sense and Respond to Stimuli • There are a variety of responses to _________or anything that causes a reaction. • They may move toward a food source or move away from a threatening predator. Maintain Homeostasis • Homeostasis is when organisms maintain a stable or relatively constant internal environment, even when the external environment changes. Reproduction • The process of producing new organisms. • Offspring are similar but not necessarily identical to their parents. • therefore is when an organism ceases or stops the five functional traits of life. • is defined as never being alive or exhibiting all the five functional traits. • Elements and molecules such as water, gases and minerals are examples of nonliving material. Organic vs. Inorganic • Organic compounds are -based molecules which also contain hydrogen. Methane CH4 • Inorganic compounds are molecules that do not contain carbon and hydrogen together. • Water or H2O and Carbon Dioxide or CO2 are common inorganic molecules. • Other important inorganic molecules in the human body are oxygen (O2) and salt (NaCl) Basic Organic Molecules • • • • Carbohydrates • A major food source and a key form of energy for most organisms. • They are called carbohydrates because the carbon, oxygen and hydrogen they contain are generally in proportion to form water with the general formula • Simple sugar or monosaccharide is the basic carbohydrate. • Glucose is a common monosaccharide and of central importance in the chemistry of life. • Sugars end in the suffix • Glucose and Fructose are both C6H12O6 and are isomers; same formula but different arrangement of their atoms. • The shape of molecules is important because it changes the properties. Fructose is much sweeter than glucose. • Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are combined. The most common is sucrose which we extract from plants to make table sugar. Hydrolysis or Digestion • Polysaccharides are long chains of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides. • Starch, a storage polysaccharide in plants, consists of long chains of glucose. • We store our excess glucose as a polysaccharide called glycogen. Most of it is stored in our liver and muscle cells. • Cellulose is one of the most abundant material on earth and it is a polysaccharide that makes up the tough cell walls of plants. • We do not have enzymes that can digest or hydrolyze cellulose so it is not a nutrient. • It does contribute to digestion though because it is insoluble fiber or roughage. • is the polysaccharide that makes up the hard exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans Lipids • • • • Fats are formed from molecule fatty acids and a glycerol • If all the carbons have the maximum amount of hydrogen, then it is called a fat. • Animal fats are saturated and are temperature. at room • Fats of plants and fish are usually unsaturated because the molecule is not packed as tightly. • It is at room temperature and called • fat or hydrogenated vegetable oil is good unsaturated fat converted into saturated fat • The main function of fats is long-term energy storage. • A gram of fat provides twice as much energy as a gram of polysaccharide. • is a lipid molecule and is biosynthesized by all animal cells because it is an essential structural component of all animal (not plant or bacterial) cells. Tools in Biology Microscope • an instrument used to see objects that are too small for the naked eye. •The first microscope to be developed was the optical or light microscope. It was an invention of eyeglass makers in the Netherlands. • In 1676, Anton Van Leeuwenhoek is credited with the development of this tool with his discovery of microorganisms. Types • Compound or light Microscope • Electron Microscope • Phase Contrast Microscope • Stereomicroscope or Dissecting Compound or light Microscope • Most common • Uses a light source and glass optics • This limits the magnification of an object Electron Microscope • uses a beam of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination. • Because the wavelength of an electron can be up to 100,000 times shorter than that of visible light photons, the electron microscope has a higher resolving power than a light microscope and can reveal the structure of smaller objects. Phase contrast Microscope •It reveals many cellular structures that are not visible with a simpler light microscope. •These structures were made visible by staining, but this required additional preparation and killed the cells. The phase contrast microscope made it possible for biologists to study living cells Light Microscope Phase contrast Microscope Stereomicroscope or Dissecting Microscope • an optical microscope designed for low magnification observation of a sample, typically using light reflected from the surface of an object rather than transmitted through it. • uses two separate optics (two objectives and eyepieces) to provide slightly different viewing angles to the left and right eyes. This arrangement produces a three-dimensional of the sample being examined Metrics • The metric system is an internationally agreed decimal system of measurement , based on 10’s Field of View • It is the area that you see when looking through the microscope. The field of view depends on the strength of magnification. The lower the power the larger the field of view Stain • Staining is a technique used in microscopy to enhance contrast in the microscopic image. • Stains and dyes usually kill or “fix” cells. Microtome • A tool used to cut extremely thin slices of material, known as sections. It allows for the preparation of samples for observation under light or electron microscopes. Petri Dish and Agar •A shallow cylindrical glass or plastic lidded dish that biologists use to culture cells •Agar is a jelly-like substance, obtained from algae • It is used to provide a growth medium in which microorganisms can be grown. Centrifuge •Separates out material according to their density. •In blood samples, whole cells (red, white, platelets) go to the bottom while the liquid part (plasma) stays on top. Taxonomy “The Science of Classification” The “Father’ of Biology First to classify organisms by where they lived! AIR WATER LAND Binomial Nomenclature “2-named system” *In Latin…..”Universal” language *Based on Structure Fruit fly Drosophilia melangaster “Black bellied Dew Lover” Kings Play Chess On Fiber Glass Stools *Breed *Race Can Interbreed and produce viable offspring! Classification uses a Dichotomous key. *2 choices of “this or that” through observation of characteristics! People confuse race with ethnicity All men of whatever race are currently classified by biologists as belonging to the one species, Homo sapiens. All races share 99.99+% of the same genetic materials! KINGDOMS FUNGI ANIMAL PLANT MONERA PROTISTA Animal •Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms •All animals are motile •All animals are heterotrophs •The word "animal" comes from the Latin word animalis, meaning "having breath" •The word excludes humans – that is, "animal" is often used to refer only to nonhuman members of the kingdom Animalia. Plant •Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms •Green plants have cell walls with cellulose and obtain most of their energy from sunlight via photosynthesis •All animals are autotrophs •Plants are non-motile •Green plants provide most of the world's oxygen Protista •A protist is any eukaryote that is not an animal, (land) plant, or (true) fungus. •Can exhibit both plant and animal characteristics * For example, it might move around by specialized structures and also make its own food. Monera •Contains unicellular organisms with a prokaryotic cell organization (having no nuclear membrane) such as bacteria. •Bacteria are usually classified by their shape; round, rod and spiral •Bacteria can form complex associations with other organisms. •These symbiotic associations can be divided into parasitism, mutualism and commensalism. • Parasitism or pathogens (produce disease) • Mutualism or “friendly flora” (yogurt) •Commensalism or where one benefits and the other is unaffected (on your skin) Fungi •The group of eukaryotic organisms that includes unicellular microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as multicellular fungi that produce familiar fruiting forms known as mushrooms •Fungi are heterotrophs •Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems Viruses? •Viruses do not belong in any Kingdom as many scientists do not consider them living. •A virus is a small infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of other organisms •It contains a DNA or RNA coil that carry genetic information within a protein coat The Cell Animal Plant Animal and Plant cells are eukaryotic cells, or cells with a membrane-bound nucleus. Unlike prokaryotic cells (like bacteria), DNA in animal and plant cells are housed within the nucleus In addition to having a nucleus, animal and plant cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles, or tiny cellular structures, that carry out specific functions necessary for normal cellular operation. • Cell (Plasma) Membrane - thin, semi-permeable membrane that surrounds the cytoplasm of a cell, enclosing its contents. Fluid Mosaic Model Cell or Plasma Membranes are composed of a LipoProtein “sandwich”; an outer and inner layer of lipids with protein molecules between the layers. • Cytoplasm - gel-like substance within the cell. • Nucleus - membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary information. * 46 Chromosomes Genes DNA • Nucleolus - structure within the nucleus that helps in the synthesis of proteins. • Centrioles - cylindrical structures that organize the process of cell division. Only in animal cells. • Mitochondria - cell components that generate energy (ATP) for the cell and are the sites of cellular respiration. The “powerhouse” of the cell • Endoplasmic Reticulum - extensive network of membranes composed of both regions with ribosomes (rough ER) and regions without ribosomes (smooth ER). Involved with communication throughout the cell. • Ribosomes - consisting of RNA and proteins; ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis. • Golgi Complex - also called the Golgi apparatus, this structure is responsible for manufacturing, storing and shipping certain cellular products (carbohydrates and proteins) • Lysosomes - sacs of enzymes that digest cellular macromolecules such as nucleic acids. (“Suicide sacs”) • Cell Wall – outer dead layer made of cellulose in plants; gives structure • Chloroplast – organelles found in plants; necessary for the process of photosynthesis. Collect light and with CO2 and H2O, makes glucose and oxygen. Animal cells are similar to plant cells in that they are both eukaryotic cells and have similar organelles. Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. While animal cells come in various sizes and tend to have irregular shapes, plant cells are more similar in size and are typically rectangular or cube shaped. Animals cells store energy in the form of the complex carbohydrate glycogen. Plant cells store energy as starch. Of the 20 amino acids needed to produce proteins, only 10 can be produced naturally in animal cells. The other so called essential amino acids must be acquired through diet. Plants are capable of synthesizing all 20 amino acids. Animal cells increase in size by increasing in cell numbers. Plant cells mainly increase cell size by becoming larger. They grow by absorbing more water into the central vacuole. Animal cells do not have a cell wall but have a cell membrane. Plant cells have a cell wall composed of cellulose as well as a cell membrane. A plant cell also contains structures not found in an animal cell. Some of these include a cell wall, a large vacuole, and plastids. Plastids, such as chloroplasts, assist in storing and harvesting needed substances for the plant. Animal cells also contain structures such as centrioles, lysosomes, cilia, and flagella that are not typically found in plant cells. In animal cells, only stem cells are capable of converting to other cell types. Most plant cell types are capable of differentiation. A cut stem can become a root.
 

Test 1 - Review Vocabulary

Microscope - types, uses and characteristics of each

The microscope is an instrument specialized in visualizing objects that are too small to be viewed in the naked eye.

The types of the microscope are:

Compound or light microscope: it is the most commonly used microscope that uses a light source and the principal of optics in order to magnify and see the object.

Electron microscope:it has a principal of  beams of accelerated electrons as a source of illumination providing a higher resolving power than other microscopes and magnifying smaller objects so they can be seen.

Phase contrast microscope :it has a special characteristic that has the ability visualize living things.   

Stereomicroscope or dissecting microscope : it’s a type of an optic microscope using the light reflection process and not the light transmission through the subject in order to magnify it.

Metrics – basic units ; meter , gram , liter:

 

 Metric system is a measurement system used in  different field of science (biology, physics, chemistry   ... ) and approved worldwide. It is a scale centered around a basic unit. Moving the decimal point to the right, convert the unit to a smaller one and the opposite happens by moving the decimal point to the left.   Meter is the basic unit for length and distance measurement. Liter is the basic unit of volume and capacity  measurement and gram is the basic unit of mass (weight) measurement.

 

Prefixes (smaller) – deci, centi , milli

As mentioned above, when we move the decimal point to the right , we convert the basic unit to a smaller one whether for the distance, capacity or mass. Deci is a smaller unit obtained by moving the decimal one time to the right. Centi is even smaller than deci unit obtained by moving the decimal two times to the right and by moving it three times , we obtain even a smaller unit called milli.

 

Prefixes (bigger) – deka, hecto , kilo

In the metric system for the capacity , weight or distance , moving the decimal to the left make the basic unit a bigger one . Another way is to divide the basic unit number by a multiple of 10. Dividing the number by only 10 , we obtain deka unit. Dividing the number by 100 will give us a bigger unit which is hecto and finally dividing by 1000 , an even bigger unit (kilo) is obtained.

 

Microscopy unit – micron or micrometer ; 1 mm = 1000 um.

Micrometer is a measure of length in the metric system . Each one millimeter equals 1000 micrometer (a smaller unit) abbreviated as um. This unit is specially used in the microscopy language.

 

Field of view

When we place the examine slide on the stage of the microscope , we look through the ocular lens. The visible extended  area of the slide when we observe through the ocular is called field of view. This visible area is inversely proportional to the magnification strength ; a bigger field of view obtained with a lower power and the opposite is true.

 

Stain

Also known as dye . It is an organic compounds that allows enhancing contrast of the image seen by the microscope . The portion of stain responsible for giving the color is called chromophore. There are many types of stains.

 

Microtome

During preparation of microscope specimen sample , one cannot put the whole specimen on the stage . That is why we need to cut it into smaller and thinner pieces called sections. To do so, a tool is used called microtome . It resembles a knife or a blade that trims  the wanted specimen/material into thinner slices .

 

Petri dish , Agar

Petri dish is a small cylindric plastic plate used for bacteria growth and cultures. Within the petri dish , a substance called agar is found. Agar is extracted from algae , it is a gelatin structure with other nutrients.

 

Centrifuge

Is a device found in the laboratories used to separate fluids and liquids based on their density. A centrifugal or spinning force is applied to the liquid. For example, in a blood vessel centrifugation , serum or plasma with a light density stays on top while cells go down to the bottom of the tube because of their heavier density.

 

Taxonomy

Scientists used a method approved internationally to allow a better organization and classification of organisms as well as an easier way to communicate. Taxonomy is the science of classification of organisms into groups or categories that gather living things sharing a similar character or features.

 

Aristotle, Linnaeus

Aristotle “Father of Biology “  is the famous Greek  biologist  and philosopher that first classified living organisms based on where they lived ; water , land or air . Linnaeus “Father of Taxonomy”  is a Swedish scientist and botanist . He was the first to create a single , uniform system to name the species known as binomial nomenclature.

 

Binomial nomenclature

A uniform , universally approved system that attribute for each organism a two word Latin : the genus name followed by the species name.

 

Latin

Is the universal language used in the 2 named system or binomial nomenclature  of taxonomy science . Based on structure.

 

Kingdom – Phylum – Class – Order – Family – Genus – Species

Taxonomy has seven levels in its hierarchy from the least to the most specific . Kingdom is the first and broadest category in organisms classification . We identify five kingdoms : animal , fungi , plant , monera (bacteria)  and  protista (members sharing animals and plants traits). The second largest group is phylum or division (eg : chordata) above the class and below kingdom . Class is a  more specific level of classification  ; the third largest group. Order , the 4^th largest group followed by family group (3^rd smallest group). Genus is a class consisting of closely related species . Species is the most specific group consisting of organisms that can reproduce and interbreed .

 

Genus and species name

Genus is the generic name of the organism but species is the specific name . Those two names are important in the binomial nomenclature. Eg : Panthera leo .

 

 

 

Variety – Breed or Race

Breed is defined as a specific subgroup of organisms  that share similar appearance , features , behavior making them unique and different from other organisms of the same species. This subgroup can interbreed to produce new offsprings and share similar ancestors. Race is considered to be a biological classification rather than a cultural one.

 

5 kingdoms – characteristics of each

 Animals , kingdom of Animalia, are multicellular , eukaryotic organisms that breath and are able to move and reproduce.They consume complex organic substances like other animals or plants to produce energy (heterotroph).Classified as vertebrates (having a backbone) or invertebrates (no backbone). Considered consumers.

 Plants , kingdom of  Plantae , are a group of multicellular , non motile , eukaryotic organism characterized by their ability to produce their own food and  green plants can make their own energy  through a process called photosynthesis. They are autotrophic unlike animals. Reproduces sexually.

 Protista is another kingdom. Any organism that does not fit into a single kingdom . It is not a plant, animal or fungus . It actually can have features of both plants and animals : move(motile)and make their own food(autotroph). They usually are eukaryotic and mostly formed by a single cell. They also lack well tissue organization. , just a nucleus with organelles.

 Monera is a kingdom that groups unicellular organisms , all of them prokaryotic known as bacteria. These organism are categorized regarding their shape , size and staining. Accomplish symbiotic associations with other living organisms ; parasitism , mutualism or commensalism. Can be motile via their flagellum. 

 Fungi are eukaryotic that can be unicellular or multicellular. They have an important role as decomposers in the ecosystem .

 

Eukaryotic , prokaryotic

Any cell that contains a well defined nucleus with a nuclear membrane and proper organelles organization are eukaryotic. Usually multicellular but could be single cell.However, any unicellular  organism that does not contain a nucleus and where no nuclear membrane and organelles  are present are prokaryotic. Bacteria are prokaryote but animals, plants , fungi and protist are eukaryotic.   Both have a plasma membrane and a cytoplasm . Usually eukaryotic cells are larger than prokaryotic. Finally, prokaryotic has a single chromosome with circular DNA in cytosol with complex cell wall and asexual reproduction. In contrast , eukaryotic has linear DNA in the nucleus and reproduces sexually by meiosis and mitosis .

 

Motile , non-motile

A motile organism is the one that has the ability , by using energy , to move independently. Non motile is any organism that lacks the ability to self-move.

 

Heterotroph , autotroph

Heterotroph : organism that cannot produce its own nutrient and needs to consume other organisms to get their energy and food source.

Autotroph : Just like green plants, autotrophs are organisms able to create their own food by consuming chemicals or sun energy.

 

Parasitism , mutualism , commensalism

Those three words are examples of symbiosis association. Parasitism is the relationship in which one organism depends on another to live and may kill it and produce a disease. So one of the two organisms will be harmed and the other will survive. Mutualism is a common benefit relationship where both parts benefit. Commensalism is a relationship type where one organism benefits but the other will not benefit or lose.

 

Pathogen

A small organism that induces a disease (pathology) to another organism is called pathogen.

 

Decomposer

Just like fungi , a decomposer is an organism that feeds and depends on a dead organism .

 

Viruses

Non living particle that does not belong to any kingdom. Made of a DNA or RNA inside a capside with or without envelope , viruses reproduces by using other living cells machinery and produces disease / infections .

 

5 traits and characteristics of life

5 characteristics of life : cell , obtain and use energy , reproduction , respond to environment and evolution or adaptation.

 

Metabolism

Group of chemical processes happening inside the cell that changes nutrients into energy  and responsible to maintain cell life and survival . Consists of anabolism and catabolism.

 

Homeostasis

A state of equilibrium or stability of the organism regardless of the external stimuli and environmental changes.

 

Stimuli

An event that induces or initiates a reaction in an organ or tissue. Like a trigger for physical or chemical change  .

 

Non living – dead

Dead organism is a living organism that lost all living features . But non living is an agent that has never been alive or was alive but due to a process it became non living.

 

Organic – inorganic

Organic are molecules that contains both carbon and hydrogen. Inorganic are compounds formed by either carbon or hydrogen but never both together.

 

Carbohydrates - uses; -ose

Carbohydrates are the major form of energy source in most organisms containing oxygen , carbon , and hydrogen.

Monosaccharides - glucose, formula

Monosaccharide is the simplest and most basic form of carbohydrates.

Glucose belongs to the monosaccharide group  hexose having 6 carbon atoms . It has a major importance as an energy source in living things . The formula of glucose is C6H12O6.

Disaccharides – sucrose

Disaccharides are formed by a combination of 2 monosaccharides . One of the most found disaccharide is sucrose which is extracted from plants to produce table sugar used in food.

Polysaccharides - glycogen (animal), starch (plant)

Polysaccharides are a combination of long chains of many monosaccharides. It is found in animals in the form of glycogen which the storage form pf excess glucose in the human body found in the liver and muscles.

In addition to that it is found as starch in plants which is also a storage form polysaccharide made of many glucose molecules.

.Cellulose (plant structure), chitin (some animal structure)

Cellulose is the most common polysaccharide  on earth which plays a role in making up a rigid cell wall in plants.It cannot be digested nor hydrolyzed , thus it plays a big role in digestion acting as an insoluble fiber facilitating the digestion of other nutrients

Chitin is  the second most abundant  polysaccharide found in nature, after cellulose, is a linear polymer that build the rigid exoskeletons of some insects, crustaceans , and bacteria.

Isomer

Isomers are compounds  having the same formula but different shape and arrangement of atoms.

Dehydration synthesis, Hydrolysis

Dehydration synthesis is a reaction where two monosaccharides are joined to form a disaccharide in the process of losing a water molecule and forming a glycosidic bound between the 2 monomers.

Hydrolysis: it is the reaction of breakage of the glycosidic bond when adding water to the  sucrose polysaccharide to form a glucose and fructose monosaccharides.

Enzymes, -ase :

Enzymes are substances that act as a catalyst to produce a specific chemical reaction by lowering the activation energy of this reaction. It is produced by living organisms and takes -ase as a suffix such as lipase.

Lipids - fats, oils, waxes

Lipids are a class of organic compounds composed of fatty acids and some derivatives  . They include fats , oils and waxes.

Fats are formed from fatty acids and a glycerol molecule and are solid at room temperature , however oils are lipids that are liquid at room temperature. In addition waxes are simple lipids that are formed of an ester and a fatty acid found in plants covering leaves , fruits , animal skin .

Saturated fat (solid), unsaturated (liquid), trans fat

Saturated fats are when the carbon atoms in the fatty acids  have a maximum amount of      hydrogen atoms therefore being fully hydrogenated. They are solid at room temperature.

Unsaturated fats are fats which contain one or many double or triple bonds which gives them the property of being liquids at room temperature.

Trans fats are among the unsaturated fats which contain one or more trans double bonds ..

 

Cholesterol is made of saturated fatty acids synthesized in the liver and is a component of animal cell membrane , in addition to that it is used to produce sex hormones in humans and animals.

Protein - amino acids; 20 essential

Proteins are large molecules composed of polypeptides which are made of amino acids . They are an essential molecule to all living organisms.

Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins and the smallest unit of which proteins are made of. There are 20 amino acids of which 9 are essential amino acids meaning they cannot be produced by the human body but only obtained from food. They include histidine , isoleucine , leucine , lysine , methionine , phenylalanine , threonine, tryptophan , and  valine.

Peptide bond - C-N

Peptide bond are chemical bonds (between the C. Atom and the N atom ) that join the carboxyl group of one amino acid to the amino group of another amino Acid forming polypeptides and then proteins.

Nucleic Acids - DNA, RNA; uses

Nucleic acids are polymers made of many monomers named nucleotides which functions in playing a role in producing proteins and cellular functions. Nucleic acids include DNA. And RNA . DNA is a nucleic acid made of nucleotides have deoxyribose as a sugar while RNA have Ribose as a sugar.

Nucleotide - 5-carbon sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids formed of a 5carbon sugar bonded with a covalent bond to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.

DNA - spiral or double helix; like a twisted ladder

DNA is a nucleic acid formed of two polynucleotides ( two strands) winding around each other forming a structure called a double helix. They are held  winding around each other by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases in both strands.

RNA - coding for proteins

Rna is a. nucleic acid mad of a single strand of nucleotides formed by ribose sugars.. they function in creating proteins and coding for them. ( such as in the mRNA) , forming peptide bonds between amino acids and in transporting info between cells.

Nitrogenous bases - A-T, C-G

The nitrogenous bases are divided into  Purine bases ( G and A) and pyrimidine bases ( C and T) . The A base is linked to T. In DNA and U in RNA. The G base is linked to the C base.

Surface area to volume ratio - single celled vs. multicellular

Surface area to volume ration is the surface area of an organism in comparison to it’s volume.  In unicellular organisms the Sa: V ration increases since the surface area. Does not decrease relatively compared to the volume . however in multicellular organisms the volume increase relative to the surface area and will cause an increase  in the SA:V ratio.

cell - tissue - organ - system – organism

The cell is the smallest unit in any living thing.

A tissue  is made up of a group of cells that have the same function .

An organ is made of a group of tissues having the same function.

An organ system is a group of organs that work together fulfilling the same function.

Organelles are sub-cellular structures  inside the cell that has specific functions.

Cell, plasma membrane; composition

The plasma membrane is a membrane in the outer region of the cell composed of two phospholipid layers embedded with proteins.it is a thin semi -permeable membrane covering the cell .

Cytoplasm is a gel-like-substance that is formed between the plasma membrane and the nucleus . It is the location where many reactions take place , in addition to having functions in supporting organelles and transporting substances in the cell.

Nucleus, Nucleolus

Nucleus is the control center of the cell containing all the genetic material ( including DNA) and protecting it .It is covered by a membrane enclosing the genetic material of the cell made of 46 chromosomes having genes .

Nucleolus is an organelle within the nucleus that has a function in synthesizing proteins and ribosomes.

Centrioles are structures having a cylindrical shape found only in animal cells . It has a function of organizing cell division.

Mitochondria, Respiration

Mitochondria is organelle that is called the powerhouse of the cell where all energy is generated in the form of ATP . It is the site where cellular respiration is made in order to produce energy so the cell can perform it’s functions.

Ribosomes are organelles made of RNA and proteins . the main function of ribosomes is protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum is made of an extensive network of membranes divided into 2 regions the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The rough part contains ribosome while the smooth doesn’t . This organelle has cell communication as it’s main function.

Golgi body is the apparatus where manufacturing , storing , and shipping of carbohydrates and proteins is made.

Lysosomes are vesicles made in the golgi apparatus containing enzymes used to breakdown polymers.

Cell Wall is a rigid outer layer made of dead cells and cellulose in plants giving protection and structure to the cell.

Chloroplasts, Photosynthesis

Chloroplasts are organelles found only in plants where photosynthesis occurs and glucose and oxygen are formed.

Photosynthesis is the process where the plants use CO2 , H2O and light to produce glucose as an energy source for the plant and oxygen.

Vacuoles are membrane saclike organelles within the cytoplasm that contains water , salts and other molecules. They are bigger in plant cells and can be multiple .

Differentiation

Cell differentiation is the process which cells alters there structure and become specialized in certain functions different than other cells .