This research focused on finding out if the language is getting marginalized whether the marginalization of Adi language occurs voluntarily or is it forced

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This research focused on finding out if the language is getting marginalized whether the marginalization of Adi language occurs voluntarily or is it forced. What are the processes by which the Adi language is becoming marginalised, and is this process contributing to the marginalisation of Adi forms and knowledge creation as well.

To gather this information, a sociolinguistic survey was administered to a stratified judgment sample of 40 people divided into older and younger generation to gauge their proficiency in speaking, understanding, and attitudes towards their language “Adi”; how they acquired the language; and in what contexts and with what frequency they use it. Further to this, respondents were asked their opinions on a range of language issues, including knowing Adi, Hindi and English. These questions sought to uncover some of the attitudes, beliefs and values that residents have towards Adi language

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

This introductory chapter provides the context for the study of the current sociolinguistic research.

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY:

According to Columbia University linguist John McWhorter, "language" is defined as a combination of words, grammar, and other rules and norms that allow humans to speak, write, and sound in ways that others can understand (Nordquist, 2019). It cannot be overstated how significant language is to everyday life. It is what enables us to communicate with each other. Through language, we discern the world around us. It is a communication and relationship building tool that allows us to connect & share our knowledge, beliefs, ideas, values, and cultures with others. A visible and powerful indicator of one's identity; an invaluable method of maintaining links with one's cultural past and of preserving the richness of one's cultural heritage as well as one of the most powerful symbols of diversity1. Around 6,912 languages are spoken around the world, but more than 4,000 are spoken by indigenous people, even though they make up less than 6% of the world's population. And around 3,000 are considered as ‘endangered’. According to (Skutnabb-Kangas 2009 qtd in Harrison 2013) “although multilingualism predominates and linguistic repertoire challenges the notion of monolingualism as the norm, we live in a “multilingual world of vanishing languages” and the vast majority of vanishing languages are ‘Indigenous’ ones. Every two weeks, one indigenous language is projected to perish.

  Each and every language carries a unique intangible culture of its speaker, and that heritage remains as a reflection of that culture even long after the language dies (University, n.d.)[1]. “As such, losing any language is not just a loss for a certain group of people, but for humanity as a whole (UNESCO 2003 qtd in Andersen 2009)”. It is not because a speaker actively loses interest in their language that it goes extinct or becomes marginalized. As stated above, thousand-year-old cultures, knowledge and beliefs are encoded in language. The situation is particularly challenging for indigenous languages that did not keep records and passed knowledge from generation to generation orally. This is one of the reasons so many languages have been marginalized and many have gone extinct because of it. In addition, several factors contribute to the marginalization of a language, including often political oppression, societal transformation, and globalization. Being marginalized entails being limited in scope and space, as well as being subjected to exclusion, discrimination, rejection, omission, and isolation. Therefore, a language is marginalized when it is not acknowledged for a certain role in which space is given to other languages within the same linguistic environment.

Therefore, the Adi language was chosen as the subject of this study because Adi language is also an indigenous language. According to the UNESCO Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger (2009) there are more than 26 languages of Arunachal Pradesh that have been identified as “endangered languages” and the “Adi” language is one of them. Hence, marked “unsafe"

Background of the Adi Tribe:        

One of the most populous ethnic groups in Arunachal Pradesh is the Adi. The Siang Frontier division is dominated by the Adi tribe. As per the 1991 census, the Adi community has 1.2 lakh members, making them the largest tribal group in Arunachal Pradesh.  The Adi tribe inhabits a large area of Arunachal Pradesh, covering the entire East Siang, Upper Siang and Siang districts; a part of West Siang district, the western and southern Lower Dibang Valley, and parts of Lohit and Namsai districts. The inhabited areas cover an area of 21,229 square kilometers. This ethnic group's language is known as "Adi," and it is spoken with minor differences by all Adi tribes.

In Adi mythology, the lineage  is traced to Pedong Nane, the ancestor of Tani-the-man. Pedong Nane was the great granddaughter of Sedi Melo. Adi or Bangni-Bokar Lhoba are a multi-ethnic group found in the Nyingchi Prefecture's Himalayan hills, primarily in the districts of Upper Siang, East Siang, West Siang, West Siang, and Dibang Valley. Adi is considered one of the 56 ethnic groups in China. The Adi people are believed to have come from southern China in the 16th century (The NE Travel Expert, 2020). The Adis were previously known as 'Abors'.  "ABOR" is a xenonym from Assamese and means "independent, remote, and unknown"; it refers to a variety of tribes and clans living in the hills east of the Miris up to the Dibang River. However, the locals living in those hills refer to themselves as Adi, which means "hill" or "mountain top ("ADI Tribe," 2011). The Adi is a significant tribe with 14 sub-groups living in Arunachal Pradesh. Two main groups of Adis exist (the Bogums and Bomis) and within each group are a number of sub-tribes. One group includes the Minyonfs, Karkos, Shimongs, Bomdos, Janbos, Panggis, Palibos, Bogums, Padams, Milangs, and so on; whereas another group includes the Gallong and seven other groups. By nature, the Adis are democratic and have a unique sense of history. The Adi tribe, which has a population of 109,725 people, is largely found in the Siang river region. Racially, the Adi tribes are a subset of the Mongoloid stock and feature highly developed features. The Adi population in this basin has an extremely high sex ratio of 1,010 females per thousand males, with 54,591 males (49.75 percent) and 55,134 females (50.25 percent) (Pertin 2015).

 

Tribes and Organization:

Adi are composed of a numerous of sub-tribes: Minyong, Paadam, Pasi, Panggi, Millang, Komkar, Karko, Shimong, Ashing, Bori, Boh (Pailibol), Bokar, Ramo and Tangam. Racially, the Adi tribes are a subset of the Mongoloid stock and feature highly developed features.

Introduction to Adi Language:

As previously stated, Adi is the language of one of the major tribes of the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh known as the "Adi tribe," and is categorised by the Linguistic Survey of India as part of the North Assam group of the Tibeto-Burman family (Pertin, 2015). It is spoken by the Adi people and its subtribes, with slight variations. The Adi people's languages and dialects are divided into two groups: Abor (Abor-Minyong, Bor-abor (Padam), Abor-Miri, and so on) and Lhoba (Lho-Pa, Luoba). The Adi language, like most indigenous languages in Arunachal Pradesh, has an oral literature and no written scripts, hence knowledge, culture, and beliefs have been passed down orally from generation to generation as part of the tribe's traditional culture. The Adi possess a rich oral traditional (Oral tradition is information, memories, and knowledge shared by a group of people.) literature in the form of legends, myths, folklores and folktales.

Adi literature has been developed by Christian missiona   ries since 1900.  The missionaries J. H. Lorrain and F. W. Savidge, called the fathers of the Adi language or Adi script, released an Abor-Miri Dictionary in 1906 with the assistance of Mupak Mili and Atsong Pertin. In Adi-dominated communities, Adi is taught as a third language in schools. In Arunachal Pradesh and other northeastern states, the Adi use Hindi as a language Franca to communicate with other indigenous communities.

The Adi language has two dialect forms i.e. the Gomku and Gomli. 

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM:

As previously stated, the Adi language has had an oral literature with no written scripts of its own. Because of its unwritten status, the Adi language adds an additional level of vulnerability and marginality to this language. According tothe UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger (2009), more than 26 languages of Arunachal Pradesh have been listed as “endangered languages” including the Adi language. In a state like Arunachal Pradesh, where hundreds of indigenous communities with small populations live in pockets of small areas with other smaller groups, exchanging sociocultural elements every day, adopting other cultures and losing their own, it is not uncommon for many of the smaller groups to be labelled as ethnic and linguistic minorities. Furthermore, according to the "Center for Endangered Languages, RGU," the multi-layered acceptability of languages of wider communication like Hindi, Assamese, and English has caused a major language shift towards the mainstream languages, resulting in a critical state of language loss of the adi and tribal communities' native languages. Another critical sign considered is that the Adi language is already on the decrease among the younger generations. These issues mentioned above are considered to have contributed to language marginalization or language endangerment of this language. However, this cannot be seen as the sole reasons for the Adi language's marginalization. Therefore, this thesis investigates whether or not the the Adi language of the Adi tribe in Arunachal Pradesh is becoming marginalized and if so how. What are the processes through the language is getting marginalized, and is this process contributing to the marginalisation of Adi forms and knowledge production as well.

 

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY:

• The purpose of this study is to determine if the marginalization is happening in the case of Adi language and if so How.
• To find out if the marginalization of the language is voluntary or forced
• To find the process leading to the marginalization of Adi language.
• To find out if its leading to the marginalization of Adi forms amd knowledge production.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

  

• What are the processes through which the language is becoming marginalized?
• Does the marginalization of the Adi language imply the marginalization of Adi forms and knowledge production?

 

SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY:

This study may have addressed another research question, which is "if the cultural depiction of Adi people is changing as a result of the marginalisation of Adi language." However, due to the challenges of such a task, particularly the limited time period for fieldwork, some limits were faced over the course of research, which include the following:

•  The researcher was unable to contact all of the members chosen for the sample, Due to their frequent travels and busy schedules
• The sample employed in the research, while representative, is rather small in comparison to the population; as a result of the limited time span for the research, more concrete data for the research could not be gathered.

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

•  This study will assist the researcher in educating people about the language and the power that a language possesses.
• This study will assist the researcher in gaining a better understanding of the processes or reasons for this language's marginalisation, as well as the negative consequences of this language's marginalisation.

 

LITERATURE REVIEW

To write this dissertation, the researcher also used a few books, articles, and materials. Many scholars have studied the Adi language. Unfortunately, adequate information concerning the marginalization of Adi and how it affects our culture and knowledge system has yet to be published. Books and articles on the Adi people have usually focused on culture and society; while others have emphasized genetic classification. Present research would be a systematic attempt to explore the processes of marginalization of Adi language and its cultural implications. While reviewing the existing literature, the works and remarks of some scholars have been highlighted.

Ndhlovu(2007) stated that when a language is not recognized for a certain function in which space is accorded to other languages within the same linguistic ecology, it is marginalized.

Odol Pertin (2015) stated in his PhD dissertation titled "Tracing the Migration Routes of the Adi Tribe of the Siang Basin Arunachal Pradesh" that "the inclusion of other's languages like Assamese, Hindi, and English, etc have distorted the Adi form of speech & these are common phenomena among the tribal family living in urban areas, which has led to the children not being able to speak their own mother tongue as well as too much of outside influence is diminishing "If the issue is fully ignored, or if the current tendency continues, most tribal languages will become extinct over the next 50 years, according to linguistic expert" (p.218).

Lomdak’s article entitled "Language Endangerment in Arunachal Pradesh: Current Issues and Future Prospects" published by the Center for Endangered Languages, RGU (2017) provides an overview of endangered languages of Arunachal Pradesh. Lomdak (2017) cites several reasons why these languages may be endangered, such as the multi-layered acceptability of languages such as Hindi, Assamese, and English, thus leading to the extinction of native languages from tribal communities. Also, that many of these languages are unwritten adds to their vulnerability. There has been negligence and faulty provisions in the Governance which have hindered the use of tribal mother tongues outside of their home domain; groupings in politics and culture have exacerbated the already existing inequity. Young speakers and smaller/minor speech communities have been most affected (Lomdak, 2017).

The article "Myth, Memory, and Mamang: Writing Orally and Voicing the Marginal" by Papiya Ghosh (2020) investigates the marginalization of Adi oral culture through the writings of Mamang Dai. According to Ghosh (2020), "the age-old traditions and practices are now on the verge of extinction, either due to the death of the elderly storytellers or a lack of practice and interest among the young generations as a result of the arrival of literacy, writing, and print culture." Furthermore, the adoption of alphabets, print culture, and missionary education put the oral tradition and the voices of the Adi culture against each other (p.33-34). Ghosh's (2020) research was based on Mamang Dai's writings. She analysed Mamang's book on myths 7 folktales of Adi's to evaluate the material on the marginalisation of Adi oral tradition, which does not reason with actual data because it is entirely dependent on mythology.

 

According to the preceding assessments of past similar works on this topic, no suitable research has been conducted to examine the actual language situation of Adi tibe as a whole, and no proper data on whether language loss is leading to the loss of Adi forms and knowledge production is available. These findings should be replicated in a more natural context in future studies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

METHODOLOGY

This chapter outlines the study's research methodology. They are as follows: research design, study area data collection, and research subject.

A sociolinguistic survey methodology was used for this study. Data was elicited using sociolinguistic field approaches and informants of various ages. The primary data is obtained using the methods listed below.

Research Design:

The research was conducted in East Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh. The research was conducted for a span of 3 to 4 weeks that is from 23rd April 15th^th May, 2022 estimate. The above mentioned area is where the Adi tribe is mostly dominant. For this study, we collected data from both primary and secondary sources. Locals were studied to determine the processes through Adi language is marginalized and its cultural implications.

Study Area:

Arunachal Pradesh is the largest state of north eastern India. It has an area of about 83,743 squares kilometers of land area. Arunachal Pradesh is a vast and varied landscape, with a climate & diversity that is equally diverse. It is home numerous tribes & sub tribes with distinct cultural zones. The tribal population accounts for about 66.85% of the total population of the state, which is 13.82 lakhs according to the (census, 2011; Lomdak, 2017). The state has the most ethnically and linguistically diverse communities. The ethnic composition of the tribes of Arunachal Pradesh predominantly belongs to the mongoloid stock. The languages of Arunachal Pradesh are classed as Sino-Tibetan language family, more precisely as Tibeto-Burman and Tai groups of languages family. The Adi language is classified as part of the “Tani Languages” linguistic group.

East Siang District is a district in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. The district is 4,005 square kilometres in size (1,546 sq mi). The district has a population of 99,214 people, according to the 2011 census. Various tribal groupings of Adi people exist in various sections of the district, and Adi is spoken by 62.78 percent of the district's population. Pasighat is the administrative centre of Arunachal Pradesh's East Siang District. It is the oldest town in Arunachal Pradesh and is located in the eastern Himalayan foothills at 155 metres (509 feet) above mean sea level. According to the 2011 India Census, the population of Pasighat was 24,656 people. Males make up 50.62 percent of the population (12,482 males), while females make up 49.37 percent (12,174 females).Pasighat has an average literacy rate of 79.6 percent, with male literacy at 85.33 percent and female literacy at 73.74 percent. The town is dominated by the Arunachal Pradesh Adi tribe. Aside from the Adis, the town is home to the Galo, Mishing, and Mishmi tribes, as well as individuals from other states. Kelek Mirbuk is a settlement in Bogong, East Siang District, and Arunachal Pradesh. It is 19 kilometres east of Districts Headquarters. Mirsam Village is located in the Pasighat circle in the East Siang district of Arunachal Pradesh, India. It is 4 kilometres from Pasighat, Mirsam's district and sub-district headquarters.

Duration of the study:

Fieldwork was conducted in the Pasighat, kelek Mirbuk, and Mirsam Village for 3 to 4 weeks, from April 23rd to May 15th, 2022.

Methodology:

The purpose of this study was to better understand the current linguistic situation and how it contributes to the marginalisation of the Adi language, as well as the processes by which the language is marginalised and its cultural repercussions. A sociolinguistic survey was done to accomplish this. Since the 1960s, sociolinguistic surveys have sparked popular attention. Cooper defines sociolinguistic surveys as a technique for "gathering information regarding the social organization of language behaviour and behaviour toward language in specific communities"(Andersen, 2009).

Questionnaire design:

The questionnaire was designed with reference to Cooper’s five-part framework for sociolinguistic surveys. The Cooper framework was based on a distinction between language behavior and behavior toward language proposed by Agheyisi and Fishman (1970 qtd in Andersen, 2009 p.23). In Cooper's framework, language behaviors can be broken down into three broad categories: proficiency; acquisition; and use. Another aspect of this dichotomy is how we behave towards language, which can be classified as either attitude-based or implementation-based (Andersen, 2009). Cooper's five-part framework is completed by these two behaviors. Below is a table that illustrates Cooper's framework.

Table 1: Cooper's sociolinguistic framework

Category
Language Behaviors	Proficiency Acquisition Use
Behaviors Toward Language	Attitudinal Implementational

 

The researchers used the above framework in the design of the questionnaire to gain insight into the language use, attitude toward language, and language treatment of the selected participants to contribute to the study's goal. The questionnaire contained of both open and closed ended questions.

The sample:

Being a mother tongue speaker of the selected language group, being a practising language expert (language officers), and working for a language preservation organisation were all relevant criteria for inclusion in the sample. Another key factor was the participants' age group, as selection was confined to the following age groups: 11-18 years, 18-25 years, 26-40 years, and 41-60 years. Participants in these age categories were thought to be capable of providing useful information on language proficiency, language use, language attitudes, and language treatment in East Siang District. The study focused on their perspectives on the use of their mother tongues in various social contexts.

Data Collection:

The research was conducted in the township area and two villages in the East Siang District of Arunachal Pradesh, namely Pasighat, Kelek Mirbuk, and Mirsam Village, which were chosen at random based on criteria derived from local people's knowledge of the Adi language. The following analysis of Adi language marginalisation and its cultural implications is based on oral interview data obtained in East Siang District between April 23 and May 15, 2022. A total of 42 participants were questioned from the following target groups: younger generation Adi language speakers (30); elder generation Adi language speakers (10); language officer (1); and the general secretary of the Adi Agom Kebang society (1). The majority of the target sample was made up of Adi language speakers from the younger generations.

The observation approach was also used to acquire insight into the study.  I am pretty acquainted about the culture and basic characteristics of the Adi language because I am from the Adi tribe, however for data collecting; I had to visit to certain sites in the Pasighat, East Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh for a month. During this time, I was involved in a variety of neighbourhood programmes and cultural activities. As a result of this interaction, I now have a greater grasp of the community and the Adi language, as well as sufficient time to collect data. I also reviewed non-and peer-reviewed literatures, working papers, documents, journals, newspapers, conference papers, and studies from well known organizations related to marginalization of indigenous languages. To ensure that only up-to-date information is used, the age of the works to be included is limited to ten years.

Demographic variables:

Demographic variables were also considered in this study. Two demographic variables were considered for the study:

1. Age
2. Level of Education

Age:

Age was one of the primary characteristics used to select the sample for this study. The sample is divided into two age categories; older and younger generation. The older generation contains age group of 26-40 years and 40-60years, while the younger generation consists of 11-18 years and 18-25 years. The goal was to achieve similar number of participants among both age groups (older & younger age group) for the study. The final sample consisted of 40 community members and their distribution is illustrated below:

Table 2: Final sample

Final sample
Age	No of respondents
11-18 years	14
18-25 years	16
26-40 years	3
40-60 years	7
Total	40

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Education:

The second demographic variable considered for this study is level of education. Nearly 98% of the respondents reported to have some form of formal education, while 2 respondents reported to have never received any form of education. 47.5% of the respondents reported have received secondary level of education; 32.5% of the respondents reported to have graduation level of education while the other 15% reported to have received primary level of education.

Fig .1 Level of education:

 

 

RESULTS

This chapter presents the survey results for the current sociolinguistic research, interview of District Language officer, Adi Agom Kebang Society and reviewed non-and peer-reviewed literatures, working papers, documents, journals, newspapers, conference papers, and studies from well known organizations.

 

Introduction of literary:

As we already know the Adi language has an oral literature with no form or script until the 1900s, hence knowledge, culture, and beliefs have been passed down orally from generation to generation as part of the tribe's traditional culture.  According to the myths, it is said that the Adi did have a script written on animal skin but was destroyed by Lhoba, one of the ancestors of Adis. "According to tradition, the wise man (who is believed to be God Himself) gave scripts to the three grandsons of Tani: Memba, Khamba, and Loba. The scripts of Memba and Khamba were written on bark of trees and slate of stone, while those of Loba were written on animal skin. Loba was very hungry one day and burned the skin before eating it (Osik, 8 qtd in Ghosh, 2020).

Adoption of Adi script:

In the Adis' oral world, literacy became ingrained through the adoption of Roman scripts. Before independence, almost all tribal peoples in the North East Frontier Agency (present-day Arunachal Pradesh) were illiterate. After the treaty of Yandavoo in 1826, Assam was ruled by the British up to the foothills of Arunachal Pradesh. An administrative centre was established in Sadiya. The Christian missionaries also established a school in Sadiya, open to children of the tribal groups, along with the spread of the administration. As part of their outreach, the missionaries published some religious hymns in Adi and Tani dialects using Roman script. They even translated some school books in Adi dialect with the help of Roman Scripts. However after 1945, translation of the Missionaries and the use of Roman scripts came to an end. Then in 1955 the NEFA administration took the initiative to produce books for primary education in Adi (Tani) dialect. In accordance with the Text Book Production Branch (TBPB), Oshong Ering started translating books in Roman scripts, but the then-Prime Minister Jawahar Lal Nehru rejected those scripts and declared that the "Devnagri Nayee Talim" script be used for tribal dialects in the North East Frontier Agency. Despite being again translated into "Dev Nagri Nayee Talim" script as ordered by the Prime Minister, students had difficulties adopting this script correctly and were finding it challenging to progress. As of today, the TBPB has not published any book or adopted any other script, according to Oshong Ering.

Diminishing numbers of speakers:

The first question in the survey was if the respondent could speak in their native language, the "Adi language." All the participants of the older generation age group reported they can speak the Adi language. Whilst, 56.7 percent of the younger generation claimed being unable to speak Adi, whereas 33.3 percent reported being able to speak Adi. Three of the interviewees stated that they could speak Adi moderately or acceptablely. When asked why they cannot speak their own mother tongue, 5 respondents stated they grew up in a home where the adults did not primarily interact in Adi; 10 respondents said they were rarely encouraged to speak Adi; and two more respondents claimed they grew up outside of their home. Both the age groups were also asked to self-assess their ability to speak Adi in order to acquire insight into their own language speaking ability. For this investigation, a five-point Likert scale was used. A five-point scale measures both positive and negative responses, resulting in solid quantitative data that is easily evaluated (Newson, 2021).

 

Fig .2 Can you speak Adi? Younger generation (11-25 years)

 

 

The result shows that the all the older generation rated their abilities in speaking Adi language very high at “Very fluently” while, the 40% respondents of the younger generation said they cannot speak Adi language at all; 30% respondents rated their ability to speak Adi at “very fluently”; 10% at “fluent”; 13.3% rated their ability to speak Adi “poor” and two respondents reported their ability to speak Adi at the mid level “acceptably”.

 

Table 3: How fluent are you in Adi?

Proficiency in speaking Adi	Age categories
	11-25 years	26-60 years
Very fluently	9	10
Fluent	3	0
Acceptably	2	0
Poorly	4	0
Not at all	12	0
Total	30	10

 

Both the older and the younger generations were also asked if they could easily have a conversation in Adi about most everyday things. As all the statement above the older generation reported they can easily have any conversation in Adi about most everyday things and 36.7% respondent of the younger generation also reported they can have any conversation in Adi about most everyday things while, 36.7% respondents of younger generation said they cannot have any conversation in Adi at all and rated it at “Very difficultly”; 13.3% rated “difficult”; 3.3%  at “fluent” and 3 respondents reported they can “acceptably” make conversation about most everyday things.

As a further method of measuring their skills in the Adi language, all respondents were asked how often they believe they speak the language correctly. About 47.5% of the respondents said they speak Adi correctly most of the time or always. 37.5% of the respondents rated their ability to speak Adi as "not at all", and 15% said they rarely or never spoke Adi correctly. Even though they knew little about the language, the two respondents stated that they thought they were speaking it correctly. Aside from Adi, both age groups were asked what other languages they spoke. Except for the Adi language, all of the younger age groups reported speaking English and Hindi. While 60% of the older age group indicated speaking Hindi in addition to Adi, 20% reported speaking both Hindi and English, and the remaining two respondents reported only knowing Adi. They were then asked in which language they found it easiest to communicate. The majority of respondents in the elderly age group said they find Adi language the easiest to communicate with others. While 50 percent of the younger age group said Hindi is the simplest language to communicate in, 26.7 percent claimed Adi is the easiest, 16.6 percent said English is the easiest, and 6.6 percent said all of them are the easiest to converse in.

Code mixing:

Both younger and older age groups were spotted mixing Adi with Hindi or English. However, studies have indicated that the younger generation combines Adi with Hindi or English. 46.6 percent of respondents in the younger age group said they mix Adi with Hindi or English very often or most of the time; 26.7 percent said they don't mix Adi with any other language; and 20 percent said they mix Adi with Hindi or English rarely or occasionally. Half of the younger age group reported mixing Adi and Hindi most of the time when speaking the language at home. 26.7 percent said they rarely or occasionally mix Adi with Hindi when conversing, while 23.3 percent said they never mix Adi with any language. While 80% of older age group stated they rarely mix Adi and Hindi while speaking the language at home and 20% they mix Adi with Hindi while speaking the language at home. The older generation respondents rarely mix Adi with hindi at home. Only three respondent of the older generation said they mix Adi with Hindi while at Home Younger generations were found to be more code mixing or switching in settings such as conversing with people their own age, working or school colleagues, and social gatherings with friends. While the elder generation also displayed symptoms of language mixing whether conversing with coworkers or gathering with friends. Their numbers, however, are lower as compared to the younger generation.

Decline in the use of Adi language among the younger generation:

Language use in everyday situations:

Respondents were asked which language they utilised in everyday situations. The majority of older people reported using Adi language most of the time or all of the time. While 46.6 percent of the younger generation reported using Hindi, 36.7 percent reported using Hindi/ Adi/ English sometimes. Only 16.7 percent said they spoke Adi most or all of the time.

Use of language at home:

Two questions were separately posed to the younger generation in order to acquire a better understanding of their language use at home. Respondents were asked which language they use at home to communicate with their elders on a daily basis. 40 percent of younger respondents reported using Adi and Hindi at times; 36.7 percent reported using Adi most or all of the time at home, while 23.3 percent reported using Hindi most or all of the time at home. They were also asked what language they used to communicate with persons your age at home (your siblings or others your age). 43.3 percent reported using Hindi to communicate with individuals their own age at home; 40 percent reported using Hindi/Adi/English sometimes. Only 16.7 percent said they used Adi to communicate with persons their own age at home.

The older age group was also separately asked which language they used on every day basis with their children at home. Out of the 10 respondents of the older age group 7 respondents reported using Adi most or all the time at home while 3 of them reported using Adi/ Hindi sometimes on every day basis at home.

Both age groups were asked how frequently they speak Adi at home on average. All of the older age groups responded that they speak Adi at home all of the time. 43.3 percent of the younger age group indicated not speaking Adi at home; 23.3 percent reported very frequently; 10% reported frequently; and the remaining 23.3 percent reported rarely speaking Adi at home. Respondents were also asked how frequently they use Adi in houses other than their own. Younger respondents said that 43.3 percent rarely use Adi language outside of their houses; 40 percent do not use Adi language outside of their households. Only 16.7 percent reported using the Adi language outside of their homes. The entire older age group responded that they utilise Adi language outside of their homes quite frequently or most of the time. However, they also stated that they choose the language to speak with others based on the location or people they meet.

Language usage in various domains:

At work or school/college: All respondents were asked which language they use at work (or school/college). Respondents from the elder generation reported utilizing Adi and Hindi with coworkers. In the younger generation, 13 respondents reported speaking Hindi with persons at school or college; 9 reported using English and Hindi sometimes; and 7 respondents reported using English. Only one younger generation respondent mentioned using Adi with people at school or college.

With Friends: Respondents were asked what language they use at social gatherings with their friends. The majority of the older age group reported using Adi at social gatherings. However, they also stated that it depends on who they are with; if it is a non-Adi speaker, they will communicate in Hindi. At social gatherings with friends, 50% of the younger age group spoke Hindi, while 26.7 percent mentioned using Adi. Furthermore, 23.3 percent admitted to speaking both Hindi and Adi at social gatherings with friends. Respondents were also asked which language they use with their friends when they participate in sports and social activities in their community. 40% of the younger age group reported speaking both Adi and Hindi on occasion; 33.3 percent said they use Hindi; 16.7% stated Adi; and 10% said they use English with friends while participating in sports and social activities in their community. The older age group respondents said that while participating in social activities, they mostly speak Adi, but they also speak Hindi and English at times.

 

Negative attitudes their own language:

Both the older and younger generations were asked how important their language Adi is to them. All the older age groups responded that the Adi language was very important to them. A total of 46% of the younger age group rated the Adi language as being "very important" and 30% as "significant", and a remaining 23.3% gave it an "acceptable" rating of importance. When asked if they believe that in order to be a true Adi, one must be able to communicate in Adi. 70% of the older respondents say that in order to be a true Adi, one must be able to communicate in Adi. "A mother tongue speaker should be able to converse in their native language because it is a crucial component of our identity," said one respondent. While the other half held the opposite opinion, 30% stated that knowing how to converse in Adi is not required to feel like a real Adi member. They were born with the identity of an Adi, and no one can take it away from them; therefore, it is not required for them to be able to converse in Adi. 40 percent of the younger age group also ignored the fact that in order to be a true Adi, one must be able to speak in Adi. "Language is not the main focus. A person who grows up in a different environment away from his or her native place and cannot speak their mother tongue can actually know more about their culture and heritage, the origin, than a person who speaks Adi fluently." One respondent claimed, and many more agreed with it. 23.3 percent of respondents "strongly agreed" and 20 percent of respondents in the younger age group "agree" with the statement that to be a true Adi, one must be able to communicate in Adi. It is a crucial part of their identity, so knowing how to communicate in Adi is crucial. 3 out of all the 30 respondents of the younger age group had a neutral response to the above statement. Half of the younger generation reported they feel shy to speak Adi language in public spaces or in general and that it is too old fashioned to use local language while the other half believe in vice versa.

To gauge their attitudes toward the language, younger age groups were asked how important it is for them to master their native language, while older generations were asked how important it is for their children to acquire their native language. Of the younger generation, 53.3% believe it is extremely important to master their native language; 26.7% believe it is important for them, and 20% did not agree or disagree. While older respondents didn't think it is as important for their children to master their native languages, they thought it was more important for them to teach their children English. As one respondent stated “native languages are meant to be spoken only           at home, and for my child's performance to be better outside the home, I feel it is vital for them to be proficient in English so they can do well in school and get a job." More than 90% of respondents of younger generations report that learning English is very important to them. Furthermore, the younger generation expressed that being able to speak English would enable them to do more at school, receive better education, find jobs easier, be better able to access services and information, as well as understand non-Adi culture.

Respondents were also asked if they feel that the Adi language will be lost in Arunachal Pradesh in the future. All the older generation respondents that it is very likely that the Adi language might be lost in the state as the younger generation are more inclined towards western culture and most of them don’t know how to speak Adi. Half of the younger generation respondents said they don’t think the language will be lost in the state. Three respondents stated that ‘Adi tribe is one of the major tribe of Arunachal and has large population so it is highly unlikely that language will be lost in Arunachal Pradesh”. 16.7 percent said probably, and 33.3 percent believe Adi would be lost in Arunachal Pradesh in the future. Respondents gave a variety of reasons why they believe the Adi language will be lost in Arunachal Pradesh. The use of Adi language has declined significantly among the younger generation; the younger generation prefers to speak Hindi rather than Adi; they believe it is out of date and embarrassing to speak Adi, especially within peer groups, and are more drawn to western culture.

 

Lack of institutional support:

Two interviews were carried out to find out if the language receives any institutional support: First, An interview was also carried out with the District language officer of East Siang District to find out how the state works for the welfare of the Adi language or any other tribal languages of the state. It was found that the state does not provided any specific language policy or support for the promotion or preservation of any tribal language of the state and the work has only been carried out by the tribal organization working for the preservation of their own languages for example like developing scripts. However, the government did provide some financial aid to these organizations through the Education department.

Secondly, the General Secretary of the Adi Agom Kebang Society was interviewed. It is an organisation that works for preservation & promotion of Adi Language. It was found that the state government approved Adi language to be taught in schools in Adi dominated areas in the early 2000s but most of the schools did not adhere to the policies outlined by the government. Younger generations were also if they have Adi language as a subject or have studied the Adi language in schools. The entire respondents except for one reported they have never studied Adi in schools. Only one respondent reported she had studied Adi as the third language subject in school.

Pidginization:

“Pidginization is a linguistic process that occurs when people who do not speak the same language come into contact. It involves the simplification of the contacting language and the exploitation of linguistic common denominators. It is essentially an oral process and limited communication” (Todd, 1980). Participants were asked if any of the words or phrases of Adi language are lost today. In the younger age group, most respondents responded they had no idea, while a few said maybe, but didn't know the exact words or phrases that no longer exist. However, the entire older generation replied with many words or phrases no longer in use. For example:"Ikupe Aiye" meaning “have to do it” was the original term, but is now commonly referred to as "Ipeku Aiye" or "Ipeku Lagiye". "Ipeku" actually has no meaning and is the simplified version of the word "Ikupe", while "Lagiye" is actually an Assamese word.

Confinement of the use of “the Gomku” to Adi social institutions and folksongs:

The Adi speak in two dialects: Gomku and Gomli. The Gomku old form, which is mainly used in sayings, proverbs, ballads of rhapsody, Gangging (religious place) keyum kebangs, and ritual hymns, etc., is mostly employed by shamans, folklorists, rhapsodists, and other orators. Gomli is the common dialect spoken by all Adi in daily life (Pertin, 2015 p.217). Younger generations today are less familiar with the Gomku because it is not often spoken in families only during rituals, funerals and festivals. Younger age group respondents were asked if they knew that the adi language has two dialect forms only few respondents yes while majority had no idea the adi language had two dialect forms.  The survival of the Gomku is already at stake as the younger generations have not been made acquainted with the dialect form.  Even the Gomli is considered “distorted from its original form due to inclusion of other’s languages like Assamese, Hindi and English, etc” (Pertin , 2015). In the interview with the Adi Agom kebang Society stated that “Gamli is the dictionary version of the Gomku means it is already in its simplest form and further marginalization of the language will finally lead to extinction of the language”.  

Decline of Adi forms and Knowledge production among the younger generations:

The Adi possess a rich oral traditional literature in the form of legends, myths, folklores and folktales that have been transmitted from generation (Pertin, 2015 p.49).

Folksongs:

Folksongs are typically performed during festivals, marriage, community hinting and funeral etc by the Miri abus (rhapsodists). Respondents were asked if they understand the Aabangs (ballad of rhapsodists) sung by the Miri abus during festivals.  70% reported they don’t understand it while 30% reported they somewhat understand the Aabangs sung during festivals. Respondents were further asked if they are well versed in any of the “Giidi Miri (Festival songs), Ponung Aabangs Kumsinam Miri(Prayer songs) or Penge(Funeral songs)” 85% of the respondents reported they are not well versed in any of them while 15% respondent they know one or two “Giidi Miri”.

Folktales:

Folktales are oral stories that people tell each other rather than written ones. Stories like these are rooted in a wide range of storytelling traditions, including fables, myths, and fairy tales("Folktale - Definition, meaning & synonyms," n.d.). Respondents were asked if they heard the famous folktales of “Keyum-kero, Kine Saki Mumdi, Boum kakir etc” While 65% respondent respondents reported they have, 35% reported they have not heard these Adi Folktales.

Ethnomedicinal Plants:

Respondents were asked if they heard the names of these ethnomedicinal plants that theAdi people such as, “Aki Rokmi Tasut (Ricinus communis L, Nekung  (Smilax aspera L.), and Tapir (Phoebe cooperiana U.N) Sayong (Polygonum hydropiper L.)”(Tatan et.al, 2020). 65% respondents they have not have heard the names of these ethnomedicinal plants; 20% reported yes and 15% reported maybe.

 

Participation in Folk dance:

Respondents were asked if they participate in folk dances such as "Ponung, Yakong, and Delong," which are held at festivals such as Aran, Etor, and Solung. 70 percent of respondents (living in the township region) stated they don't join in these traditional dances because itd fpr the older women& men part to do snd older women and men normally do, and also because they aren't interested, while 30 percent (living in Pasighat village areas) claimed they do participate in such folk dances during festivals.

The finding from the survey indicates that the marginalization of Adi language might be happening because of the following factors:

From the survey it can be seen that with the introduction of literacy by the Christian missionaries in the 1900s, the oral of the Adis and the indigenous tribes got distrupted . It reduce the use of native language and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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[1] University, S. F. “Importance of Langauge” retrieved from https://www.sfu.ca/lovemotherearth/08classroom/papers/importance_of_language.pdf  

Simon Fraser University (SFU) is a public research university in British Columbia, Canada.