"Your Old Father Abe Lincoln Is Dead and Damned": Black Soldiers and the Memphis Race Riot of 1866 Author(s): Kevin R

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"Your Old Father Abe Lincoln Is Dead and Damned": Black Soldiers and the Memphis Race Riot of 1866 Author(s): Kevin R. Hardwick Source: Journal of Social History, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Autumn, 1993), pp. 109-128 Published by: Oxford University Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3789131 . Accessed: 10/08/2013 14:23 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp . JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org. . Oxford University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Social History. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions "YOUROLDFATHERABE LINCOLNlS DEAD AND DAMNED":BLACKSOLDlERSAND THE MEMPHlSRACE RlOT OF 1866 ByKevinR. Hardwick Universityof Maryland at CollegePark Yourold fatherAbe Lincolnis deadanddamned.l Statementmadeby an Irishpoliceofficerto blacksoldiersat the startof the May1 1866. MemphisRiot,Tuesday, Between May1 andMay3, 1866,racialconflicterupted violentlyin Memphis, andsmall Tennessee. Irishpolicemen andfiremen, together withwhitelaborers businessmen, riotedinthesouthern partofthecity.Forthreedaystheyattacked FortPickering, theblackresidents livingin theshantysettlement surrounding a Unionmilitary installation on theoutskirts of thecity.Theriotersinitially Colored focused theirattacks on theformer soldiers oftheThirdUnited-States HeavyArtilleryregiment, whichhaddisbanded April30-the lastof three On blackregiments to be mustered outof UnitedStatesserviceat Memphis. May2 and3, however, the riotersincreasingly targeted the civicinstitutions schools, andproperty of the blackcommunity of southMemphis, including authorities churches, andblack-owned houses.ByMay4, whenfederal military declared martial lawanddetachments ofwhitetroops enforced orderinthecity, twowhitesandat-leastforty-six blackshadbeenkilled,betweenseventyand eightyothershadbeenwounded, at leastfiveblackwomenraped,morethan twelveschools onehundred people(mostlyblack)robbed, andfourchurches, andninety-one housesburned.2 Contemporary observers attributed the violenceto the unrulyconductof betweenblacks blacksoldiersin Memphis andto the longstanding animosity Daily andtheIrish,whocompeted forworkasmanual laborers. TheMemphis thattrouble Avalarlche,forexample, argued, "itis onlywiththenegrosoldiers andthe haseverexisted....Withtheirdeparture, willcomeorder, confidence, neither goodwillofolddays.Hadwehad[whitetroops] instead ofnegrotroops, thisriot,northe manylawlessactspreceding it duringthe pastsix months, Bureau, wouldhaveoccurred." Thesuperintendent oftheMemphis Freedmen's MajorGeneralBenjamin P.Runkle,stressed that"therewasalsoa conflictof &c,andthe laborbetween theIrishhackSdrivers, dray-drivers, porters, laborers, felt negroes employed inthesameoccupations; therewasagooddealofbitterness preferred uponthepartoftheIrish,fromthefactthatthesesouthern gentlemen of to hirenegroservants." Anotherobserver, EwingO. Tade,a representative theAmerican Missionary Association, statedsuccinctly that"thelateMemphis Riotwasbeyonda reasonable doubtinstigated bytheIrishPoliceofthiscity."3 Therioters, however, werea diverselot,andtheirethnicandoccupational ofthe background doesnotsupport suchanarrow, socio-economic interpretation This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 110 joumalofsocialhistory fall 1993 violence.WhiletheIrishoverwhelmingly dominated thecity'spoliceforceand firecompanies, theyrepresented only50to60percent oftheidentifiable rioters; atleast40percent oftheriotingmob,andquitelikelymore,wasAmerican bom. Mostof therioters wereartisans, professionals, andsmallshopkeepers, notthe "lower sort" and"rowdies" described bycontemporary accounts. Only27percent of the identifiable rioterscamefromthe occupational groupsthatobservers considered mostlikelyto bein competition withblacksforemployment.4 Norwastheriota spontaneous eruption ofracialhatred. Thecontempt that manywhitesmaintained forblacks,afterall, waspervasive bothbeforeand aftertheriot.Racism cannotin itselfexplaintheviolence.Tounderstand what happened in Memphis duringthe firstthreedaysof May1866 the eventsof theriotmustbeplacedwithinthelocalcontextof Memphis anditsparticular history asacenterfortherecruitment andadministration ofblackmilitary units. Blacksoldiers, whoseuniform conferred uponthemtheauthority ofthevictoriousUnionarmy, occupied a particularly strategic andpowerful position within thelarger community ofblackpeoplelivinginMemphis, andwereprominent in theefforts oftheformer slavestoredefine theirposition withinsouthern society. Thefreedmen soughtto repudiate thestrictures of thetraditional orderandto claimtheirindependence. Manyof thewhitecitizensof Memphis werecommittedto theenforcement of analtogether different visionof racialrelations, inwhichblacks,whilelegallyno longerslaves,remained subordinate to white authority. TheviolenceofearlyMayculminated numerous lesserconfrontations inthepreceding months.Conflict overtheappropriate deportment andbehaviorof blackmenandwomenin Memphis hadbeenfestering forsometime,as black soldiers insisted thatwhitestreattheminamoredignified andequalitarian fashion. Blacksoldiers, prominent in theMemphis garrison since1863,wereculturS allysignificant bothto blacksandwhites.Theexperience of military lifein thevictorious Urlionarmyempowered manyblacksoldiers, andthousands of blacks hastened to citieslikeMemphis to enlistin theUnionarmy. Blacknoncommissioned oicers exercised responsibility in activeleadership rolesin the military andfigured prominently inthepolitical leadership ofblackcommunities after thewar.Blacksoldiers hadaccessto firearms andtraining in theiruse,an inversion ofsocialnormsthat,priorto thewar,hadreserved accessto firearms almost exclusively to whites.Further, thesocialroleof soldier, carrying withit theauthority andprestige oftheUnionarmy, in itselfenhanced thepowerand self-image of blacksoldiers. At a massmeetingin Memphis heldon the first anniversary oftheEmancipation Proclamation, participants expressed thesense ofdignitythatmilitary serviceprovided. "Wearehighlygratified bytheappellationbywhichthecoloredsoldiers areaddressed bytheirofficers, viz.:men; and weurgethecoloredmenin allplaces,atalltimes,andunderallcircumstances toceaseusingthatvulgar phrase, 'nigger."'5 Whenblackmenactedas provostguards in Memphis andothersouthern cities, theyenforced aneworderthat,fromthestandpoint ofmanywhiteSouthz erners, represented theworldturnedupsidedown.Thus,blacksoldiers wereat oncedeeplythreatening to thosewhitescommitted to theoldorder,andpsychologically, aswellasactively, liberating toblacksstruggling tocreatethenew. The presence ofblacksoldiers in Memphis, andtheirrelations withbothblack This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHERABELINCOLN lll andwhiteresidents of thecity,arecentralto understanding theriot.Theriot wasin partdirected at stripping thesemen,in themostdirectandbrutalway possible, of theauthority thatfederal servicehadprovided them.6 Theviolenceof theriot,andthesocialtensionthatunderlay it, ultimately derivedfromthe wartime-migration of thousands of blackmenandwomen. Memphis, likemostsouthern cities,experienced a vastinfluxof former slaves during andafterthewar.ByMarch1863,General Stephen A. Hurlbut waswritingfromMemphis requesting instructions onwhattodowith"thevastnumbers of worthless negroes" thatcongregated aroundthe city.Hurlbut reported the presence of almost5,000blackmenandwomendirectly dependent on federal forces,aswellas"averylargenumber . . . notsupported bytheGovt."In 1865, whena citycensuswastaken,thepopulation stoodat 28,000of whom11,000 wereblacks.Largenumbers of blackpeoplelivedin the suburbs of Memphis, however, andaFreedmen's Bureau report ofSeptember 1865,estimated thetotal blackpopulation "inandabout" thecityat 16,000.In lessthanfiveyearsthe blackpopulation ofMemphis hadexpanded morethanfour-fold.7 Throughout thewarthestatusofTennessee slavesremained ambiguous, and federalpolicyregulating theirtreatment evolvedastheexigencies of fighting thewarandoccupying theregiondemanded. Federal troopsinvaded Tennessee in February 1862,occupying Memphis in June.GeneralWilliamT. Sherman, whoassumed command ofMemphis inJuly1862,hopedatfirsttoavoiddisputes aboutthestatusoffugitive slaves.However, he,likeotherUnioncommanders in Tennessee, quickly recognized thevalueofslavelaborto theConfederate army, andtookstepsto deprive hisopponents of itsbenefit.Sherman thuswelcomed fugitive slavesandputthemtoworkconstructing fortifications around Memphis. InOctober1862,assuming controlof lawenforcement in Memphis, Sherman ordered policeto treatall blacksin the cityasfreedmen, untilfederalcourts determined otherwise. A monthlaterhe issuedorders declaring that"runaway slavesmustbetreated asfree,andpeopleencouraged togivethememployment assuch."8 Federal policyinTennessee wascomplicated bythefactthatmanyslaveowners,especially in the easternpartof the state,wereunionist,andmanyarmy officers feltcompelled to protecttheslaveproperty ofsuchmen.President Lincolnrecognized thesupport ofTennessee unionists byexempting thestatefrom theemancipation proclamation inSanuary 1863.Asapractical matter, however, slaveryin westTennessee wasa dyinginstitution following thepassage inJuly 1862,oftheSecondConfiscation Act.Thatlawconfiscated andfreedtheslaves ofsecessionist slaveowners atthetimethatslavescamewithinUnionlines,and complicated theefforts ofunionistauthorities throughout Tennessee to enforce localslavecodes.InNovember 1862,Sherman declared thesuperiority of the SecondConfiscation Actoverlocallawsregulating slavery in Memphis, effectivelyendingtheabilityoflocalcivilauthority toenforce theslavecodes.While thestatusoffreedmen inMemphis remained ambiguous, bylate1862theywere no longersubjectto thefullrepression of legalbondage.9 Memphis wasanattractive destination forblackmenandwomen.Whilethe This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 112 journalof socialhistory fall 1993 warwasinprogress andtheformal freedom ofslavesbelonging tounionist masters stillunsure, thepresence ofUnionmilitary units,especially blackmilitary units, offered figitiveslavessomesecurity fromirateplanters seekingto reclaim their property. Further, manyblackmenwereattracted toMemphis bytheopportunity toenlistintheUnionarmy. Infall1863Memphis became themilitary collection depotforblacksoldiers inwestTennessee, andanumber ofblackregiments were raised there.Bytheendofthewar,39percent ofallTennessee blackmenbetween theagesof 18and45 servedin theUnionarmy.10 Afterthewarlargenumbers of former slavesmigrated to Memphis to avoid difficult laborconditions on plantations. In thecountryside, blackswerevulS nerable to exploitation andviolencewhendealingwithplantation ownersand otherwhites.OneFreedmen's Bureau oi:ficial wrotefromMemphis inApril1866 that"numerous outrages havebeencommitted upontheFreedmen in thisSubDistrictandthatFreedmen have,byreasonof suchoutrages, beencompelled to fleefromthecountry andseekprotection withinthelimitsof thecity.... " In late1865anotherUnionofficerin Memphis reported that'slarge numbers of negroesarearriving dailyfromNorthMiss.manyof thelatterallegingthat theyhavebeendrivenoutofMiss.bythemilitiaorganizations ofthatstatewho underthepretextof disarming themtakealltheirproperty." Forthousands of blackmenandwomen,thecontinued presence ofU.S.troopsparticularly black troops,andtheFreedmen's Bureau officesin Memphis offered someprotection fromwhiteaggression andgreater powerin asserting controlovertheirown lives.1l Oncelargenumbers ofblacksoldiers cametobestationed atMemphis, membersoftheirfamilies begantosettlethereaswell.ManyUnionohicers, however, disapproved ofthepresence ofthefamilies ofblacksoldiers. ColonelJohnFoley, commander of the61stU.S.ColoredInfantry Regiment, whichwasstationed atFortPickering, complained bitterly aboutthedisruptive effectofthefamilies settlednearthefort.The"several hundred negrowomenlivingin Temporary huts,betweenthecampof thisregiment andthecity"he reported in January 1865,"are,forthemostpart,idle,lazyvagrants, committing depredations, and exercising a verypernicious influence overthe coloredsoldiers of thisPost." Thesewomen,he continued, "aregenerally in a destitute condition, andtheir wantsarepartially supplied bysoldiers ofcoloredregiments whoclaimthemas wives." Foleywasparticularly incensedthatfamilymembers "carry offrations fromthecompanies in spiteof theutmostvigilance of company commanders, andalsocarryoff axes,shovels,spades,andpicks... tO usein buildingand maintaining thesehouseholds.''12 Unionofficers severaltimesattempted to forcethefamilies of blacksoldiers to moveto locationsmoreisolatedfromthefort,butto smallavail.Captain Thomas A. Walker commanded adetailtorelocate thefamilies ofblacksoldiers tonearby President's Island, wheretheywouldworkasfieldhandsonneighboring plantations. Hereported inaJanuary 1865letterthat"thepeopleareunwilling to bemoved,andwillgiveno assistance themselves, butlocktheirdoors,and runto theirhusbands in thevarious military organizations forprotectionthe husbands sweartheirfamiliesshallnot be movedto the Islandandin some instances havecomeoutin armstO preventit."Earlier effortsto relocatethe This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHER ABELINCOLN 113 families of blacksoldiers to plantations around Helena,Arkansas, where"they canhavedailycommunication byBoatwiththeirhusbands at Memphis," had beensimilarly unsuccessful.l3 As thenumbers ofslavesandformer slaveslivingin Memphis grew,connectionsbetween soldiers andtherestoftheblackcommunity becameincreasingly complex.Manyfamiliesdepended on military wagesto meetexorbitant rents andhighfoodprices.Lieutenant ColonelRobertCowden,commander of the 59thU.S.Colored Infantry Regiment, investigated theconditions inwhichthe families of hismenlived."lnthe largest housewhichis probably 18x 35 feet andtwostories highandcontaining fourorfiveroomstherearesevenfamilies of soldiers of thisRegiment mostifnotallofwhompayMr.Boyle$8permonth." Another officer observed inDecember 1865that"probably threefourths ofthese [colored] troopshavefamilies depending uponthemforsupporttheyhavenot beenpaidduringthelastsixmonthsandcannotprovide fortheirfamilies who beingdestitute trespass upontheproperty ofcitizensandmanyofthemresortto stealing." Tensions mounted whenlandlords threatened blacktenants witheviction,andsoldiers responded to protecttheirfamilies. InAugust1865,Colonel Cowdendefended theactionsof oneof hismen.A localproperty ownerhad "sentanumber ofcolored mentoteardownthehouseinwhichasickwoman the wifeofa soldierin thefortlayIyingandherhusband stopped themwiththreats untilhe couldmovehiswifewhichhe hasdone.Thisis what[thelandowner] reported asoneof the59thhavinga gunandthreatening to shoot&c.... '14 Soldiers provided clothing fortheirfamilies andperhaps forothersintheblack community aswell.ColonelJohnFoleyobserved that"thesoldiers of myregimentalsostealeachothersclothesfortheirfamilies towearanddispose of.... " ColonelA. VonSchrader, a Freedmen's Bureauinspector, notedin Sanuary 1866,"thata greatmany[black] peoplearefoundto wearmoreor lessparts of theUniform prescribed bytheU.S.Army...."Sucha widespread dispersal of federalmilitary clothinghadimportant implications fortheblacksoldiers, sinceit linkedthemevenmoretightlyto therestof theblackcommunity and madeit moredifficult forthe casualobserver to distinguish betweensoldiers andblackcivilians. "Someof thesePeopleasinstances haveproved, haveused theUniform of theU.S.Soldiers asa garbunderwhichto CommitCrimesin orderthatPersons belonging to theArmybe Suspicioned of theirfouldeed," VonSchrader wrote."Iftherecanbeno measures adopted to prohibit persons notbelonging totheArmy,towearitsUniform, thebestdisciplined troops, will unjustly becharged withdepredations whichwerenotCommitted bythem."l5 II Oneimportant consequence of emancipation wasa reduction inblacklabor. Sinceaplanter's coercion couldnotmatchthatpossible underslavery, blacks did notworkashardoraslongastheyhadbefore theybecame free.Inaddition, many withdrew entirelyorpartially fromthe laborforce.Oldpeople,children, and womenremoved themselves fromplantation laborwhenever possible. "Rather thanworklikeslaves,thefreedmen chosetoofferanamount oflaborcomparable to thestandard forfreelaborers ofthetime,"tworecentanalysts ofthepostwar This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 114 journal ofsocialhistory fall 1993 southem economy write.16 Theresultwasamassive shortfall inplantation labor thataffected mostpartsof theblackbelt.InMemphis, asthemagnitude of the laborshortage inthesurrounding plantation districts became apparent, observers focussed on thegrowing population offreedmen livingnearFortPickering. Early inthewarmanyUnionarmyoficerswishedthattheproblem offugitive slaveswouldjustgoaway. General Hurlbut, forexample, rather naivelyremarked inMarch1863that"ifthefugitives nowlurking aboutMemphis couldreturn to theirhomesinthecity& vicinity& theirformer owners wouldreceivethem& andtreatthemkindlyuntilthefinaldetermination of theirstatusmuchof the misery andvicewhichinfeststhecity& vicinage wouldberemoved." By1865, however, it wasclearthatlargenumbers of freedpeople wouldnotvoluntarily retumto plantation labor.Oneoficerreported "from myexperience hereI am entirely satisfied thatthelarger proportion ofthefreedpersons willnothireout oftheirownchoicebutwillrelyonsuchaprecarious livingastheycanmakein thecity.17 Efforts byblacksto escapeplantation laborandto removewomenandchil drenfromthe laborforcereceivedscantsympathy, evenfromthe officers of theFreedmen's Bureau. Planters andbusinessmen inMemphis complained constantlyto federal officers aboutthe"idleness" offormer slaves.Manyemployers agreedwiththeMemphis attorney whoremarked, "almost everybody is aware thatthenegrodoesnotworkasfaithfully orasmuchashe didformerly while a slave,andpersons whoemploythemareirritated a gooddealbytheirshirking."Communications between officers in thearmyandtheFreedmen's Bureau oftenechoedtheseconcems.JohnH. Grove,reporting in September 1865on the conditions of blacklifein Memphis, asserted thatwhilemanyblacksin Memphis livedcomfortably andhadjobs,"alargenumber arevagrants, who lefttheplantations uponwhichtheywereformerly employed ... whoareidle anddestitute...."General NathanA. M.Dudley, Freedmen's Bureau superintendentfortheSubdistrict of Memphis, wroteto hissuperiors in Nashvilleon September 30th,1865."Thereis a surplus population of at leastsix thousand coloredpersons womenandchildrenin andaboutMemphis whohaveno visiblemeansof support whoare,however, in a greatmeasure induced to remain aboutthecitybytheemployed coloredpeople.Verymanyof thisnumber are lazy,worthless vagrants whowillneverbe inducedto leavethe lifetheyare nowleading exceptbyuseofforce,aslonga theycanbeg,steal,orobtainsufiS cienciesto sustainlife."P.D. Beecher, a Freedmen's Bureau surgeon, offered an equally sternassessment of thesituation of theblackpopulation, writing"Iam satisfied, . . . greatnumbers leada lifeof prostitution, . . . idleness ordepending asmeansof support uponthosewhoaremoreindustrious." Foronlookers like Dudley, Grove,andBeecher, thepresence of blackchildren, women,andold peoplewhowerecapableof workbutnot activelyworking merelyconfirmed raciststereotypes offreedmen aslazyandindolent.18 As thesummer of 1865drewto a close,theFreedmen's Bllreau in Memphis, headed byGeneral Dudley, cameunderincreasing pressure frommilitary officers, planters, andwhitecitizensto relocatethecity's"surplus" blackpopulation to the plantations of tS surrounding countryside. MajorWilliamGray,one of Dudley's officers, remarked in September, that"Iamdailyurgedbyinfluential persons in thecity"to compelfreedmen andwomento acceptplantation jobs. This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHER ABELINCOLN 115 Dudley's attitude regarding thestatusofthefreedmen isapparent ina letterthat samemonth,inwhichhewrote"worthless, idle,persons havenorightstoclaim thesamebenefits arising fromtheirfreedom thattheindustrious andhonestare entitledto."InOctober heordered thatthestreetsbepatrolled bysoldiers from FortPickering to pickup"vagrants" andforcethemto acceptlaborcontracts withruralplanters.19 Tosome,andespecially to blacks, thispolicyseemedakintothereimposition ofslavery. Wamer Madison, afreedman, protested theFreedmen's Bureau policy offorcing blackstoacceptlaborcontracts. "IfyoudontwanttogowithMr.who everit maybetheydontfindoutwhether youwantto goornotatalltheymake outtheagreement sellyouforthepricethatthemangivethem," hewrote."It is positively a factthattheygetonedollara headfromtheseworstsecession Men.andi haveseenonecasewherea boywasmadeto gobythepointof a bayonet....}20 Manywhitesin andaround Memphis, however, approved of Dudley's useof coercion. TheDailyAppeal,a conservative Memphis newspaper, supported the Freedmen's Bureau policy."Whilejealously guarding the rightsof the freedmen,"theAppealopined,Dudley"inflexibly requires of themto laborforthe support of themselves andtheirfamilies, andto fulfillfaithfully theircontracts. IftheFreedmen's Bureau, everywhere, wasadministered bysuchofficers asGen. Dudley,vagabondage woulddisappear, [and]laborwouldbe reorganized harmoniously withtheinterestof bothraces...."TheMemphis DailyAvalarlche, another ofthecity'sconservative presses, described theinhabitants oftheblack shantytown aboutFortPickering. Livingin "wretched, miserable hutsandhovels,rudely constructed, withcapacity ofholdingbarely oneperson, andyetmany of themcrowded almostto suffocation," thepeoplewholivedin SouthMemphiswere,in theeyesof theAvaklrlche, "themostdrunken, blasphemous and licentious wretches thatcanbefoundamongthenegrorace,in anycityon this continent." Suchpeopledeserved no mercyorconsideration, especially since theirrefusal toacceptplantation workthreatened starvation onthemselves, and financial ruinon theplanters.21 Northern republicans in Memphis wereappalled bytheFreedmen's Bureau policies.TheReverend T.E.Bliss,thewhitepastorofUnionChurchin Memphis,firedoffa scathingletterto Dudley. "Howis it thatthecoloredchildren in Memphis evenwiththeirspellingbooksin theirlunds arecaughtupbyyour order& takento thesameplace& thereinsolently toldthatthey'hadbetterbe pickingcotton.'Isit forthepurpose of 'conciliating' theiroldrebelmasters & assisting themto gethelpto securetheirCottonCrop? Hasit cometo thisthat themostCommon rightsof thesepoorpeoplearethusto betrampled uponfor thebenefitofthosewhohaveonlywronged themalltheirdays?" Blissconcluded indignantly "Whata mockery to callthose'Freedmen' whoarestillsubjectto suchthings!" A subsequent investigation of thesituation in Memphis revealed thatDudleyandhisofficers hadindeedbeenbribed to supply planters withthe blacklaborers pickedupbytheirpatrols, andthatmanyblackswereboundover toplanters byforce.Dudleywasremoved fromchargeoftheFreedmen's Bureau in Memphis in December 1865,buthissuccessors continued to encourage the freedmen ofMemphis to acceptcontracts to laborin thecountryside.22 Unionofficers farmorescrupulous thanGeneralDudleyweretroubled by This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 116 journal ofsocialhistory fall 1993 thelargenumbers of freedmen whoappeared to havelittleorno regular work. General DavisTlllson, whoserved asheadoftheFreedmen's Bureau in Memphis inthesummer of1865,alsoattempted toinducetheMemphis treedmen toaccept laborcontracts on thesurrounding plantations. Ina reportof August1865,he wrote,"weareproceeding cautiously butatthesametimevigorously inremoving thecolored peoplewhoarewithoutmeansofsupport from this city and vicinity. Precaution hasbeentakento havethefreedpeople understand that the action of the Bureau is not in disregard of theirrightsorfreedom but for their own good.}}23 EIllson's concern, atleastinhisview,washumanitarian. Fromhisperspective (andmanyUnionofficers shared hisview)theconquered South faceda massive foodshortage iftheformer slavesrefused towork.Thelargenumbers offreedmen concentrated in placeslikeMemphis, withoutjobsandtherefore withoutthe money tobuyfood,wouldbevulnerable tofamine. Elllsonjustified hispolicyof relocating freedmen to thecountryside, in somecasesforcibly, by proclaiming thatit was"toprevent inevitable suffering anddearth during thecomingwinter, among thelargenumbers ofFreedpeoplein andaboutthiscity."Major Arthur T.Reeve,superintendent oftheFreedmen's Bureau forShelbyCounty(inwhich Memphis waslocated), likewise asserted inaDecember 1865circular thatunless thefreedmen accepted contracts in thecountryside theywouldfindthemselves destitute comewinter.'4Ifyouneglectto enterintocontracts . . . youwillfind yourselves at thecloseof thepresent contracts homeless and without meansof support." Reeveconcluded paternalistically: "Tothecoloredpeoplein thiscity Iwouldsay,unlessyouhaveagoodbusiness tosupport you,youhadbetterleave theviceandstrifeof theCrowded Cityandreturnto theCountry, wherethe fields areneeding yourlabor, andwhereyoucansecurecomfortable and healthy homes, andgoodwagesforyourwork."24 Thefreedmen, however, werenotreceptive toefforts toremove themfromthe city andputthemto workon theplantations. Neither Tillson and Dudley's use of force,norReeve's paternal rhetoric succeeded in reducing the large numbers offormer slavesin andaboutMemphis. JohnH. Grovenotedin September 1865, that,"itseemsalmostimpossible to induce[freedmen] to acceptanoffer togivethemworkupona plantation. Therearedailya number of planters, mostly fromthestatesofMississippi andTennessee, whocallontheofficeofthe Superintendent toemploythesepeople. . . butin mostcasestheymeet withno success." Indeed, blacksoldiers actively undermined theefforts oftheFreedmen's Bureau toforcefreedmen toacceptplantation work.General MIllson complained in August1865that"the[white]soldiers employed tO viSit theFreed in and aboutMemphis andinformthemthatnonebutthosehavingpeople suficient means orsopermanently employed asto beableto takecareof themselves will be allowedto remain" hadreported that"colored soldiers interfere with their labors andtellthefreedpeoplethatthestatements madeto them. . . arefalse thereby embarrassing theoperations oftheBureau." Oneblackman,protesting EIllson's laborpolicy,noted"Iknowlaborers werewantedintheCountry Many thousand wouldhaveRemained in Country & worked for wages if they had been treatedRight." Formostblacks,thesituation in Memphis, difficult as it was, remained preferable to a returnto plantation labor.25 This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHERABELINCOLN 117 III and in taverns interactions andinformal parties, private At publicmeetings, tradichallenged theblacksoldiers, andespecially thefreedmen, on sidewalks, heldmasspublicmeetings Blacks anddemeanor. forblackbehavior tionalnorms ledby aparade of 1865,including inthesummer atleastthreetimesinMemphis bandonMay30thatbeganatMainandBealestreets, military theFortPickering at Fort district.Ineachinstanceofficers business on theedgeof theMemphis tothe adjutant Woodruff, toattend.Captain soldiers off-duty released Pickering ofthefort to thecommander reported ofMemphis, oftheDefenses commander to haveasmanysoldiers [oftheparade] that"itis thedesireof the managers organTwomonthslater,theSonsofHam,ablackfraternal aspossible." present in theheart forthefirstofAugustthatgathered a celebration organized ization, officer ofa black commanding G. Kappner, ColonelIgnatz ofcentralMemphis. detaileda squadofa dozenmenanda whiteoficer, atFortPickering, regiment the 1stofAugust(indress . . . to reportat 7 o'clockA.M.tomorrow "asguards, of theSonsof Ham,"andannounced of theFestival to theManagers uniform) be ascanbe spared, "thatas manyof youmenof thiscommand in a circular who officers in chargeof commissioned to witnesssaidcelebration permitted prominently Suchmassdisplays, fortheirgoodbehavior." willbe responsible committed forwhiteswhoremained weredisquieting byblacksoldiers, attended orderofslavery.26 to thecultural to policedancesand blacksoldiers detailed oficersroutinely Unionmilitary ofoneblackregthecommander othersocialevents.lnJune1865,forexample, (1) onenoncommissioned fromyourcommand orders to"detail imentreceived Threemonthslaterthe fora coloredball."27 officer& two(2) menasguards atFortPickRegiment of theThirdU.S.ColoredHeavyArtillery commander "Ihaveneverreceivedanyordersto stopNegro to hissuperior eringreported guards forsuchto prevent manytimestofurnish dances,buthavebeenordered bycitizens."28 disturbances dances(andothersocialeventsatwhichan perceived Manywhiteobservers andboththecivil asdisorderly, wasprominent) blackcommunity independent them.Dancesweretheoccasions to regulate attempted authorities andmilitary In betweenblacksandthe whitecommunity. of violenceandconfrontation black allfurther JohnE.Smithbarred General 1865,Brigadier lateSeptember frequently balls,andpartiesheretofore dances."Thepublicentertainments, givenbythecoloredpeopleof thisCity,havingbeenthecauseof muchof the bywhichthe peaceandquiet conduct,lateof nightlyoccurrence, disorderly no moreballs,or partiesof the character hereafter of the cityaredisturbed, Smith'spolicywas amongthecoloredpeople,willbe permitted." mentioned, P.Runkle, GeneralBenjamin sinceBrigadier lessthansuccessful, apparently to forShelbyCounty,deemedit necessary Superintendent Bureau Freedmen's in ofdancehousesfortheuseoffreedmen theoperation regulating issueorders early1866.29 At resulted. trouble to enforcetheseorders, Whenthecitypoliceattempted ofMemphisoftheMayor 1866-heldwiththepermission oneballinFebruary wiveson chargesof being of soldiers' a number policebrokein andarrested This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 118 journal ofsocialhistory fall 1993 prostitutes. "Thehusbands andbrothers theninterfered &prevented thearrest. Thetwopolicemen thenwentto theEnginehouseandretumed witha force ofsomesevenmenarmed withmuskets & carbines andcockingtheirweapons demanded a surrender. Theybehavedin a veryroughandboisterous manner crying'Shootthedamned niggers."' Onseveralotheroccasions blacksoldiers responded violentlywhentheirdanceswereinterrupted bythepolice."Isaw abouttwentyor thirty[blacksoldiersl goingrightby myhouse,"statedone observer, "firing ineverydirection, andthepolicemen hadtogetoutoftheway. I understood therehadbeena ballorsomething brokenup.Theycamefiring andcursing, andeverybody hadto getoutof theyway."30 Tensionoftenarosebetweenblacksoldiers whopatrolled theareaimmediatelysurrounding FortPickering (including mostof theblackshantytownof SouthMemphis) andtheIrishpolicethatenforced orderin Memphis itself.In thesouthern partofthecity,especially alongSouthStreetwheretherewerenumerous tavemsandbarsthatsoldliquorto off-duty troops, conflicts frequently arosebetweentheMemphls policeforceanddrunken soldiers. Suchconflicts werefurther heightened byill-defined jurisdictions, sincemilitary patrols shared responsibility withthecityconstables forpolicingoff-duty soldiers, andsince manysoldiers workedin Memphis whennot on activeduty."Occasional disturbances takeplaceonSouthStreetcausedbysoldiers furnished withwhiskey bycitizenstorekeepers there," reported thecommander ofFortPickering. "Frequentarrests aremadebypatrols sentoutbytheofficers . . . atthefirstnoticeof adisturbance." Policemen attempting to maintain theirperception ofsocialorder,particularly whentheywereheavyhanded, provoked violentresponses from thesoldiers. "There haveoccurred on oneortwooccasions a conflictbetween parties ofthecolored soldiery andthecitypolice," reported anofficer inJanuary 1866,"thepolicewerein thefirstinstance blameable forattempting thearrest ofaninnocentsoldierandin thesecondplacethecoloredtroopsforusingarms andviolenceto effectthereleaseof theprisoner." Thiskindof conflictwould more thanlikelyhavebeenendemic regardless ofanyotherantagonism between thesoldiers andthepolice,andindeed,occurred betweentheconstables and whitetroopsaswell.31 Butconflictbetweenthe Irishpoliceandblacksoldiers suggested a deeper animosity. H. G. Dent,likeotherobservers, noted'withinthelastfourorfive months thenegroes inSouthMemphis havebeenveryannoying, firing offpistols atallhoursofthedayandnight." HenryParker, acaptain intheMemphis militia, described thebehavior of theblacksoldiers. "Asa general thing,whenthey've hadwhiskeyin them,they'vecertainly beenveryboisterous. I'veoncebeen shoved, myself,offthesidewalk bya negroin UnitedStatesuniform, forthe simple reasonthathedidnotwishto getintothemud....I'veseenthempush citizens offthesidewalk, usinglanguage notfit to beusedbywhiteorblack." Such behavior on thepartof blacksoldiers wasfundamentally challenging to theMemphis police,whopriorto thewarhadbeencharged withenforcing the local slavecodes.Thesoldier's conduct wasdisorderly, butit wasflagrantly soby comparison withtheexpectations ofblackpublicbehavior underslavery.32 Whilethepolicecouldnotsystematically enforceblackbehavior appropriateto slavery, theytookouttheirfrustration on blacksoldiers whenever they could. Whenblacksoldiers refused togetoffthesidewalks forwhitepolicemen, This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHER ABELINCOLN 119 whichblackshadnormally beenobligedto dobeforeemancipation, thepolice responded forcefully ona number ofoccasions. FirstSergeant PeterRobinson of the88thU.S.Colored Infantry Regiment described anincidentinvolving a fellownoncommissioned officerin November of 1865."Apoliceman camealong withhishandin hisbosom,andthrewhiswholeweightagainst SergtBackner." Harry Brown, another witness, tolda commission investigating theincident"he justwalkedalongandshovedhimwithhiselbowashe passedhardenoughto pushsergt.Backner outofhisplaceupagainsttheotherwall."Likewise, black "insolence" on occasionreceived violentretaliation frompolice.JoeBrown,a sergeant in a blackregiment stationed at FortPickering, testified aboutanencounterwitha policeman. Thepoliceman, Brownrelated, "saidto meI wishI couldgeta chanceto killalltheDamned NiggerSoldiers andI saidyoucant killme he thenstepped backa fewpacesandranupandstruckmewithhis club,on thehead at thattimeanother Policeman cameupandhe struckme severaltimes.Andtheythrumedownandstomped mein thebackwhileIying on theground."33 IV Conflictbetweensoldiers andpolicemen became routinein theweeksbefore the riotexplodedon May1. CaptainA. W.Allynof the 16thRegiment of regulars stationed atFortPickering, whosemenputa temporary haltto theriot thatevening, wasaccustomed towildanddisorderly behavior inSouthMemphis. Hedidnot intervene earlier, he claimed, because he didnotrealizethata riot wasoccurring. "Disturbances hadbeengoingonfora week,moreorless;pistol firingandcarousing." Whenaskedwhomadethesedisturbances, Allynreplied, "Idiscovered it wasa disturbance madebythenegroesat a dance-hall where theywereinthehabitofgoingtodance.I heardseveral shots,butl thoughtthe negroes were,asusual,discharging theirpistolsin theair."34 OnMonday, April30tha partyofblacksoldiers, justmustered outofservice, gotintoa fightwitha number ofcitypolicemen. No onewaskilled,butoneof thesoldiers "wasstruck witha pistol[and]appeared to beconsiderably hurt;the bloodranfromhisnostrils andthesideofhishead." Manywitnesses remembered thefightbetweentheblacksoldiersandthe policeon April30thas the real beginning of theriot.35 Certainly themoodofthecitywastenseattheendofApril.Theblackveterans ofthe3rdU.S.Colored HeavyArtillery, mustered outofserviceonthelastday of themonth,werenotgiventheirdischarge payattheirfinalmuster. Manyof them,withoutdutiesto perform, wandered intoMemphis whiletheywaitedto collecttheirpay.On thefirstof Mayat aboutthreeo'clockseveralpolicemen attempted toarrest ablackman,charging himwithdisorderly conduct, andwere prevented fromdoingsobysomefiftyuniformed blackveterans. Thepolicecame backaboutanhourlaterwithreinforcements andarrested twoof thesoldiers, whoagainresisted. Shootingbrokeout,apparently started bythesoldiers, who firedintotheair,butthenretumed bytheoutnumbered police.At theendof the firstskirmish one of the policemen wasdead,andthepoliceretreated in disarray.36 Thepolicewithdrew intoMemphis, wheretheycollected reinforcements and This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 120 journal ofsocialhistory fall 1993 raiseda citizenposseto quellthe disturbance. Theyquicklyspreadthe word throughout the citythatthe soldierswererioting.EllenDilts,a residentof eastMemphis, justnorthof theshantytown,recalled "thepolicewentupand downandspread thealarm, andI shouldthinktherewerea hundred policemen congregated." Largenumbers of menthroughout Memphis movedtowards the neighborhoods around FortPickering. Onebusinessman watched thecrowdof citizensandpolicemovepasthim."Istopped oneonthecornerandaskedwhat wasthe matter. Theysaidif I'dgo upthereI'dseewhatwasthematter; that thenegroes wereshootingeverybody." U.S.Marshal MartinT.Ryderstopped anexcitedpoliceman andaskedhimifthetrouble wasover."Hesaidit wasnot; thatthenegroes wereallarmedwithguns,andthattheycouldnotfightthem withpistols,butweregoingbackto getguns."37 Asrumors ofblackinsurrection spread, Memphis cityofficials appealed tothe localUnionmilitary commander, General Stoneman, to suppress theriot,and thenorganized citizenpossesto suppress it themselves. Onewitnessrecounted howS.C.Creighton, Memphis CityRecorder, spoketoacrowdonAdamsstreet laterthatevening.'Heputhishandinhispocketandtookouthisrevolver. 'By God,'he said,'Iama braveman;wearenotprepared now,butletusprepare to clearouteveryGoddamned son-of-a bitchoutof town."'38 A mixedcrowdofpolicemen andlocalwhitesdescended onSouthMemphis, andthesoldiers foughta briefskirmish withthem,andthenretreated to Fort Pickering. ThereCaptainAllyn'sgarrison disarmed them.Allyndispatched twosquads of Regulars to patrolSouth,Shelby,andMainStreets.Thesemen dispersed thecrowd(although theydidnotdisarm theMemphis police),and ordered theblackveterans thattheymettoreturn to thefort.Aboutteno'clock Allyn'stroopsleftSouthMemphis, andsometimethereafter a larger"posse" arrived in the area.Findingno organized resistance, thisnewgroupsplitup intosmallgroups to lookforblacksoldiers. Underthepretextof searching for arms,andledbypoliceman andlocalcommunity leaders, thesemenentered the homesof manyblacks,beatingandkillingtheinhabitants, robbing them,and raping a number ofblackwomen. Thewhitecrowd rampaged inSouthMemphis untilearlyWednesday moming beforedispersing, butretumed lateron Wednesday andtheriotcontinued for another day.Smallgroups ofwhites,manyfromthesurrounding neighborhoods, attacked blacks inthestreets, andbumedblackhouses, churches, andbusinesses. General Stoneman declared martial lawthenextday,effectively endingtheriot onThursday, May3.39 Theviolenceof theriotwasnotrandom. It wastargeted at thoseblackindividuals andinstitutions mostsymbolic of blackempowermentthesoldiers themselves, andtheinstitutions thattheirpresence sheltered. Itwasnocoincidencethattheriotoccurred thedayafterthelastblacktroopsinMemphis were mustered outof federalservice.As soonasthesemenlosttheprotection, and theabilityto protectothers,thattheirstatusasUnionsoldiers afforded them, theybecame vulnerable to whiterepression. Fromthebeginning therioters focused onblackveterans. Horatio N. Rankin, ablackschoolxnaster at Memphis, testifiedthat"thepolicemen commenced shooting at thenegroes on SouthStreetbutseemedto fireprincipally at those dressed inuniform." Thomas Leonard, Judge ofShelbyCounty, similarly remem- This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHER ABELINCOLN 121 beredseeirug a number ofunarmed blackmenandwomenduring theriot."The crowdwasnotfiringatthesecolored people,butseemedtobelookingafterand pursuing the coloredsoldiers." ShelbyCountyCoroner Francis Erickson who examined the bodiesof thirteenblackmenkilledin the riot,reinforced this testimony. "Thebodiesof allthenegroes weredressed in soldier's clothes," he reported.40 Whitepossemembers assaulted blacks under thepretext oflooking forfirearms. Itisclear,however, thatwhiletherioters wereverymuchconcerned withdisarmingblacks,theysoughtmorefundamentally to subjugate theblackcommunity, andespecially community members withUnionmilitary connections. Dr.S.]. Quimby, formerly thesurgeon of a blackregiment, witnessed anassault upona blackveteran. "There wasonemanbythenameofFayette Dickerson, whohad formerly beena soldierin thefifteenth coloredinfantry; hewasstanding byhis house;twomencameupandstruckhimovertheheadwitha stick;theythen shothimin the head,a glancingshot;theythenshothimin the abdomen." They"thenaskedhimifhehadanyarmsabouthimselforthehouse." Another veteran waskilledundersimilar circumstances. Therioters "wentintothehouse ofonemanandaskedhimifhe hadanyarms; hesaidnot.Theythenwentinto hishouseandsearched it andtookeverything valuable in theshapeofwatches andjewelry. Theyaskedhimifhe hadbeenoutthatday.Hetoldthemno;that hewasin government service; theythenshothimthrough thehead.''41 Whitepolicemen orcitizensinterrogated manyblacksto determine if they wereformer soldiers. "Sixwhitemenstopped meinfrontof theGayosohouse, andoneofthemaskedmeifI hadbeena soldier," onefreedman testified. "Itold himI hadbeenon a gunboat. He thencalledme'adamned smoked Yankee,' andstruckmeon theleftarmwitha club,andbrokemyarmbetweenthewrist andtheelbow.Oneof theothermenstruckmeon theheadwitha club,and knockedme down."TaylorHuntwasattacked bya policeman undersimilar circumstances. "Afterhe hadshotme,"Huntremembered, "heaskedme if I wasa soldier.I saidno. He saidit wasa goodthingI wasnot, andhe then wentalong." ThemenwhobrokeintoObadiah Stockley's housegavehimsome timelyadvice."Theyaskedmeif I hadbeena soldier; saidI hadbetternotown it if I had."42 Therioters targeted homeswheretheybelieved soldiers couldbefound.Phyllis Premier described theactionsof themenwhobrokeintoherhouse."Theygot twentydollars outofoneofthetrunks belonging tomybrother; saidtheywanted tokillhimbecause hewasa soldier." Primus Lanewasaskedwhyhethoughtthe mobselectedhishouseto burn."IwilltellyouasnearasI can.I hada sonin thearmyandmysoncamehere;therewasa grocery rightopposite. Theycame to thatstore,andtheymusthavelet themknowaboutmyboy,andtheycame afterhim,I think."43 Likewise, theriotingcrowdassaulted peoplewearing blueorwearing partsof a Unionuniform. Dr.Quimby described thedeathof oneof thesoldiers from his regiment. "Thiscorporal waseithergoingor comingfromsomeworkhe wasdoing.Hewasunarmed, buthe hadon atthattimebluepants." Oneblack womandescribed howthemobhadrefused to leta neighbor out ofherburning house.A manin thecrowdrecognized her:"Heseemedto knowthiswoman said'Thatis a verygoodwoman: it is a pityto burnherup,let hercomeout.' This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ofsocialhistory journal fall 1993 Shecameoutandherlittleboywithher.Theboyhadblueclotheson.They Sonofa Bitch."'44 himback,andsaid'Goback,youdamned pushed theriothadcleartiesto during raped were Fourofthefiveblackwomenwho herhouse menentered seven that testiSed Thompson Francis theUnionarmy. I had, what me asked and supper, have must they said "They afternoon. Tuesday LucySmith,whowaswith andsaidtheymusthaveeggs,andham,andbiscuit." how"wegotup,and andwhomthe riotersalsoraped,recounted Thompson sugar,andcoffee, the of left was What madea fire,andgot themsupper.... thewomento forced had men the After bayou." the into andhamtheythrew makethemfood,"theydrewtheirpistolsandsaidtheywouldshootusandfire thehouseif wedidnotlet themhavetheirwaywithus.All sevenof themen Themen ustwo.Fourofthemhaddowithme,andtherestwithLucy." violated of the her robbed and Thompson by owned trunks of thenbrokeopena pair been had we that room the in quilts some had "We there. stored was that money "Theyaskedusif wehadmade red,white,andblue,"Smithrecalled. quilting came.Wesaidafter.Theysaid,'Youniggers thembeforeoraftertheYankees butwewillkillyou,andyouwill Yankees, damned havea mightylikingforthe attheendofhertestimony: explained Smith then."' anyone for haveno liking andsomeother Hooker wehadGeneral intheroom: weresomeptctures "There andtheysaidtheywouldnothavehurtusso badif it hadnot Unionofficers, beenforthosepictures."45 assowerelikewise Armour, Twootherrapevictims,LucyTlbbsandHarriet had which $300, of her robbed Elbbs raped who men The army. the with ciated of Shetestified Infantry. a privatein the59thColored to herbrother, belonged all knew that folks were themenwhobrokeintoherhouse,"Ithinkthatthere hadnotbeenlongoutof thearmyand aboutme,whoknewthatmybrother andhewaswiththeother wasa soldier, husband Armour's Harriet hadmoney." described A neighbor whilethe riotwasoccurring. in FortPickering soldiers house."Isawthemgoingintothehouseandsaw seeingmenenterArmour's shecameoutandsaidthey[hadrapedher]. themcomingout,andafterwards leftherafter sincethen,herhusband deranged little a been Shehassometimes to do anything have not would he said he done, been had what out found he withheranymore.Theydrewtheirpistolsandmadehersubmit."46 the andreinforce of the mobservedto emphasize Muchof the behavior woman the example, for Thus, blacks. of position anddependent powerless "fellon herkneesand whosechildwasforcedbackintothebumingbuilding beggedthemto let the childout.... Theylet herlittleboyoutafterwards." housegotOUt bya Anotherblackwomanwhothecrowdforcedintoa burning "amanputa recalled, she babe," my with away backexit."WhenI wasrunning mybabe.' save to trying am doing?"I you are 'what he said and breast, my pistolto For meanymore." 'Sitdown,'saidhe,andI satdown,andtheydidnottrouble crowd. the mollify to suficient was authority to white supplication thesewomen, in whichtwoblackmenweresimilarly themanner described W.B.Greenlaw "Atthistimetwowhitemenspoketo the negroesandordered intimidated. a S.M.Randolph, to killthem." themto getdownon theirknees,threatening "maltreated." them see did he but whitewitness,didnotseeanyblackskilled, in whatway?Suchas catchingthemby the heador throatand "Maltreated 122 This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHER ABELINCOLN 123 jerking themoffthesidewalk....Occasionally a policeman wouldcatcha little darkey andjerkhimacross thesidewalk." Incidents likethesecreated inactuality thewhitegoalofblacksubordination. WhiteSoutherners couldachievethisgoal in Memphis onlybydestroying themostpotentsymbols of blackpowerin the city thesoldiers themselves.47 V TheMemphis riotwasa brutalepisodein theongoingstruggle thatcontinuedwellpasttheactualmomentof emancipation to establish theboundaries aroundandpossibilities foractionbyblacks.Theriotersasserted dominance overblacksandattempted to establish limitations on blackbehavior. Where onecultural codehadgoverned racialinteraction underslavery, another, more appropriate to thenewblackstatus,hadto beestablished afterblacksclaimed theirfreedom. Theriotin Memphis wasoneofa seriesofsimilar incidents that occurred in urbancentersthroughout thesouth."Whatever theprecipitating incident," LeonLitwack hasremarked, "nearly everyraceriotreflected that growing conflictbetweenhowex-slaves andwhiteschoseto defineemancipationandthedetermination ofwhitestoretaintheessentials oftheolddiscipline andetiquette."48 Whilethehouses,schools,andchurches of the blackcommunity in Memphiswererepaired orrebuiltin theyearsfollowing theriot,thethreedaysof violenceplacedlimitsupontheabilityof blackmenandwomento asserttheir freedom. Theriotwasa graphic demonstration of whitepowerandauthority, a threatening manifestation ofwhitedetermination to controlandsubordinate theblackcommunity. "Thechiefsourceof allourtrouble beingremoved," the DailyAvalanche exclaimed, "wemayconfidently expecta restoration of theold orderofthings.Thenegropopulation willnowdotheirduty....Negromenand negrowomenaresuddenly looking forworkoncountry farms....Thankheaven, thewhiteraceareoncemorerulersin Memphis." AustinCotton,a freedman, explained totheCongressional committee investigating theriotwhyhewasnot maltreated. "Nooneabused me,"hesaid."Itwasbecause Iwashumble asaslave, almost.I haveheardthemsayto me,'Youareright,Uncle;youarehumble, just likea slave."49 Not everyformerslavechoseto behavelikeCotton.Butthe savageattackson theformer soldiers thosemembers of theblackcommunity mostempowered to assertauthority in post-emancipation Memphisseverely circumscribed theoptionsof blackswhochoseto behavedifferently. Department of History CollegePark,MD 20742 ENDNOTES I wouldliketo acknowledge thethoughtfulcriticismandassistance of IraBerlin,JanEckS ert,RobertFriedel,GayGullickson, JamesHenretta,StevenMiller,andLeslieRowland. All of the citationsto recordsof the NationalArchivesandRecordsAdministration (NARA) arefromthe filesof the FreedmenandSouthernSocietyProject(henceforth This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions ofsocialhistory journal fall1993 byDr.Leslie CollegePark,directed of Maryland, FSSP)at theUniversity abbreviated citation. each with number control project's the I haveincluded Rowland. HouseofRepresentatives FirstSession, 39Congress, Riotsandtvfassacres," 1."Memphis hasbeen Thisdocument Report. as cited henceforth 7, p. (1866), 101, 1865-1866 Report Riots, Memphis the on Committee Select House, Congress, SeeUnitedStates reprinted. 1969). York, New ed., (reprint RiotsandMassacres Memphis in a Riotsof 1866:Terror Memphis 2. Report,pp. 354; JamesGilbertRyan,"TheofNegroHistory62 (July1977):243. Reconstruction,"Journal during Community Black Race Holmes,"TheEffectsof theMemphis otherstudiesof theriot,seeJackD.Society For "The Idem., 58-79; (1958): 12 Historical Papers of 1866,"WestTennessee Riot 17 Quarterly Histo7ical Tennessee RaceRiotof 1866," oftheMemphis Causes Underlying Memphis the in Race and Class "Community, Waller, 1959):195-221;AltinaL. (Sept. 1984):233-246. of SocialHistory18 (Winter, Jounzal of 1866," Riot of "Effects May12, 1866,p. 3, asquotedin Holmes, DailyAvalanche, 3. Memphis M[ichael] Rev. to Tade O. E. 276-271; pp. Report, RaceRiot,"pp.73-74; Memphis the RaceRiotandits ed., "TheMemphis 21 May1866,in JoeM.Richardson, Strieby, E. 24(SpringQuarterly Historical Tennessee Missionary," Northern a by Report Aftermath: 1965):p.64. Winter pp.23F237.SeeTable Riot," ClassandRaceintheMemphis "Community, 4. Waller, the Iderived ofrioters. occupation the of analysis Waller's for ofRioters," 'Occupation 1, persons, unemployed laborers, artisans, all that assuming by figure percent twentySseven withblacks thatcompeted werefromgroups wasunknown whoseoccupation persons and side. high the errson It isthuslikelythatthefigure employment. for 29, 1864,asquotedby Liberatr,January Press,July18,1863;Boston 5. Philadelphia 1985),p. Alabama, (University, 1861-1865 Endin Tennessee, Slavery's Cimprich, John 104. ser.II, TheBlgk Military Historyof Emancipation, A Documenury 6. See Freedom: U.K., (Cambridge, Rowland S. Leslie ed. IraBerlin,JosephP.Reidy,and of themilitary Experience, ofblack experience discussion further For 765-770. pp.733-731, 1982), (New Beenin theStormSo Long:TheAfteth of Slavery seeLeonF.Litwack, soldiers, 1979),pp.79-103,267-274. York, tosouthem BeenintheStormSoLong,pp.31022, onblackmigration 7. SeeLitwack, 1863, March 27 TN, Memphis, Lincoln, President to cities.Maj.Gen.S. A. Hurlbut Letters Army 16th 385, Ser. Sent, Telegrams and Vol.1/18,16AC,pp.8345 (#187), RG abbreviated RG393,pt.2, lhenceforth Commands, U.S.ArmyContinental Corps, NARA] abbreviated [henceforth Administration Records and Archives 393],National \tol.1/1816AC toLt.Col.SnoA.Rawlins, S.A.Hurlbut General Major FSSP]; [C-4861 ArmyCorps, 16th records, General 385, Sent,Ser. andTelegrams p.83 (#186),Letters TN, Nashville, Clark, T. W. Capt. to Grove H. J. FSSP]; [C-4860 NARA RG393,pt.2, Officeof Headquarters, 3379, Ser. Received, Letters (1865), G41 21Sept.1865,Box2, ofRefugees, oftheBureau oftheFieldOffices TN,Records Commissioner, theAssistant asRG abbreviated Nenceforth VA and TN RG105, Lands, andAbandoned Freedmen, a "Like Berkeley, Kathleen see on the 1865citycensus, 105],NARA[A-6130FSSP]; 1850-1880" Tennessee, Memphis, in Change Social and Immigration ofLocusts: Plague LosAngeles,1980),p. 168. ofCalifomia, (Ph.D.diss.,University TN, 11 Memphis, of Memphis, Marshall Provost 8. OrderissuedbyD. C. Anthony, Nov. 1862,in Freedom: 19 Curtis, Gen. Maj. to Nitchy A. F. in Nov.1862,enclosed I, TheDesmctonof 1861-1867,ser.I,Volume Historyof Emancipanon, A Documenury andLeslieS. Reidy, P. Joseph Glymph, Thavolia S.Fields, Barbara ed.IraBerlin, Sklvery, inTennessee, End Slavery's Cimprich, also See U.K.,1985),p.439. (Cambridge, Rowland, pp.19 45. 124 This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHERABELINCOLN 125 9. See IraBerlinet al.,Destruction of Slavery, pp.251-268.See alsoBerlinet al., Black Military Ewpenence, pp.11-15,andtheextendeddiscussion offederalpolicyin Tennessee in Cimprich,Slavery's Endin Tennessee, pp.33-45, 81-97. 10. Holmes,"Underlying Causes," p. 216;Ryan,"TheMemphisRiotsof 1866,"p. 244Berlinet al., BlackMilitary ESperience, Table1, p. 12. 11. SpecialOrderNo. 50, Bvt. Brig.Gen. [BenjaminP. Runkle],Memphis,TN, 7 April1866,Vol. 151,p. 30, SpecialOrdersandCirculars Issued,ser.3523,Subassistant Commissioner for the Subdistrict of Memphis,RG 105, NARA [A-6497FSSP]-Bvt. Maj.Gen. JnoE. Smithto Bvt. Brig.Gen. Wm. D. Whipple,Memphis,TN, 20 Dec. 1865,No. 183,vol.1/2 DWT,pp.192-93 (#402),LettersandTelegrams Sent,Ser.2865 Districtof WestTN, No. 183,RG393, Pt. 2, NARA [C-2237]. 12. On effortsto reestablish familytiesafteremancipation, see Berlinet al. Destruction ofSlavery,pp. 1-56, 249-269-andLitwack,Beenin theStormSo Long,pp.i29-247. Lt. Col.JohnFoleyto Lt.Col.T.Harris,11Jan.1865,filedwithCapt.T.A. Walkerto Capt. J. S. Lord,24 Jan.1865,in Berlinet al., BlackMilitary Ewperience, p. 719. 13. Capt.T. A. Walkerto Capt.J. S. Lord,24 Jan.1865,in Berlinet al. BlackMilitary Experience, pp.719-720;CircularissuedbyLt.Col.JohnPhillips,4Aprili864, in Berlin et al.,BlackMilitary Ewperience, note,p. 720. 14. Lt. Col. RobertCowdento Bvt. Brig.Gen. W. W. Morgan,Memphis,TN, 17 Aug.1865,LettersReceived,Box39, 59thUSCI,RegimentalBooksandPapersUSCT ColoredTroopsDivision,RG 94, NARA [G-215FSSP],Bvt. Maj.Gen.JnoE. Smith to Bvt. Brig.Gen. Wm.D. Whipple,Memphis,TN, 20 Dec. 1865,vol. 1/2 DWT,pp. 192-93 (#402),LettersandTelegrams Sent, Ser.2865, Districtof WestTN, No. 183 RG393,pt. 2, NARA [C-2237FSSP]-Lt.Col.RobertCowdento Bvt.Brig.Gen.W.W. Morgan,Memphis,TN, 17 Aug. 1865,LettersReceived,Box39, 59th USCI,Colored TroopsDivision,RG94, NARA [G-215FSSP]. 15. Lt.Col.JohnFoleyto Lt.Col.T. FIarris,11 Jan.1865,in Berlinet al.,BlackMilitary Experience, p. 719;Lt. Col. A. Von Schraderto Brig.Gen. Wm.D. Whipple,Mobile AL,31 Jan.1866,Vol.53/95,pp.39J,0, ReportsSent Ser.1056,Inspector, Recordsof StaffOfficers,Department of the Cumberland andDivisionandDepartment of TN (P) RG393, Pt. 1 NARA [C-89aFSSP]. 16. See RogerRansomandRichardSutch,OrleKindof Freedom: TheEcorlomic Consequerlces of Emancipaiion, (NewYork,1977),pp.44-47. Quotationis fromp. 44. 17. Maj.Gen.S. A. Hurlbutto PresidentLincoln,Memphis,TN, 27 March1863,Vol. 1/18,16AC, pp.83-85 (#187),LettersandTelegrams Sent,Ser.385,16thArmyCorps RG393,pt. 2 [C-4861FSSP];MajorWm.Grayto Capt.W.T. Clark,Memphis,TN, 13 Sept.1865,Box66,Unregistered LettersReceived,Ser.3522,Subassistant Commissioner forthe Subdistrict of Memphis,RG 105,NARA [A-6501FSSP]. 18. Testimonyof HenryG. Smithto Congressional Delegation,Report,p. 294, J. H. Groveto Capt.W.T.Clark,Nashville,TN,21 Sept.1865,Box2, G-41(1865),Registered LettersReceived,Ser.3379,RG 105,NARA [A-6130FSSP]*Bvt.Brig.Gen.N. A. M. Dudleyto Capt.Clark,Memphis,TN, 30 Sept. 1865,Box 1, D-66 (1865),Registered LettersReceived,Ser.3379, Headquarters, Officeof the AssistantCommissioner, TN RG 105,NARA lA-6108FSSP]-P.D. Beecherto Gen.Runkle,Memphis,TN, 18 May 1866,Unregistered LettersReceived,Ser.3380, Headquarters, Officeof the Assistant Commissioner, TN, RG 105,NARA [A-6057FSSP]. 19. MajorWm. Grayto Capt.W. T. Clark,Memphis,TN, 13 Sept. 1865, Box 66 Unregistered LettersReceived,Ser.3522,Subassistant Commissioner forthe Subdistrict This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 126 journal ofsocialhistory fall 1993 of Memphis,RG 105,NARA [A-6501FSSP];Bvt.Brig.Gen.N. A. M. Dudleyto Capt. Clark,Memphis,TN, 30 Sept. 1865,Box 1, D-66 (1865),Registered LettersReceived, Ser.3379, Headquarters, OWiceof the AssistantCommissioner, TNt RG 105,NARA [A-6108FSSP].Fora largerdiscussionof the policiesof the Freedmen's Bureau,see Eric Foner,Reconstruciion: America's UnfinishedRevolution, 1863-1877(NewYork,1988),pp. 153-170. 20. WamerMadisonto Gen.Fisk,enclosedin Bvt.Brig.Gen.N. A. M.Dudleyto Capt. Clark,Memphis,TN, 30 Sept. 1865,Box 1, D-66 (1865),Registered LettersReceived, Ser.3379tHeadquarters, Officeof the AssistantCommissioner, TN, RG 105,NARA [A-6108FSSP]. 21. Memphis DailyAppeal,8 Nov.1865;Memphis DailyAvalanche, 17May1866,quoted in Holmes,"Causes of the MemphisRaceRiot,"pp.204,209.See fora widerdiscussion, Litwack,Beenin theStormSoLong,pp.336t49. 22. Rev.T. E. Blissto Gen.N. A. M. Dudley,Memphis,TN, 3 Nov. 1865,enclosedin W.T. Clarkto Gen.Fisk,Memphis,TN, 18Nov. 1865,Box 1, C-93 (1865),Registered LettersReceived,Ser.3379, Headquarters Officeof the AssistantCommissioner, TN, RG 105,NARA [A-6100FSSP]. 23. Brig.Gen.DavisTillsonto Capt.W.T.Clark,Memphis,TN, 30 Aug.1865,UnregisteredLettersReceived,Ser.3380,Headquarters, Officeof the AssistantCommissioner, TN, RG 105,NARA [A-6054FSSP]. 24. CircularNo. 5., Ofice Supt.R. F.andA. L. Subdist.Memphis,TN, 28 Aug. 1865, Unregistered LettersReceived,Ser.3380,Headquarters, Officeof theAssistantCommissioner,TN, RG 105,NARA [A-6054FSSP];Maj.A. T. Reeve,Circular, Memphis,1N, 19Dec.1865,Vol.151,p. 19,SpecialOrdersandCirculars Issued,Ser.3523,Subassistant Commissioner forthe Subdistrict of Memphis,RG 105,NARA [A-6494FSSP]. 25. J. H. Groveto Capt.W. T. Clark,Nashville,TN, 21 Sept. 1865, Box 2, G-41 (1865),Registered LettersReceived,Ser.3379,RG 105,NARA [A 6130 FSSP];Brig. Gen. DavisTlllsonto Bvt.Brig.Gen. Morgan,Memphis,TN, 26 Aug. 1865,Vol. 133, pp.42-43 (#86),LettersSent,Ser.3517,Subassistant Commissioner forthe Subdistrict of Memphis,RG 105,NARA [A-6577FSSP];AnthonyMotleyto Gen. Fisk,28 Sept. 1865,M-84,Registered LettersReceived,Ser.3379,Headquarters, Officeof theAssistant Commissioner, TN, RG 105,NARA [A-6501FSSP]. 26. See, for furtherdiscussionof masspublicactivityby blacks,Cimprich,Slavery's EnzlinTerlrlessee, pp. 104-117.Theselargepublicgatherings aredocumented byseveral circularsissuedby Col. IgnatzKappner: see Circular: Col. I. G. Kappner[Commanding 59thUSCI],Memphis, TN, 24May1865;Circular: Col.I.G. Kappner, Memphis, TN, 30 May1865;Circular, Col. I. G. Kappner, Memphis,TN, 31 July1865,Issuances, Box40, Regimental BooksandPapersUSCT,59thUSCI,RG94, NARA[G-217FSSP].Quotes arefromCapt.J.G. Woodruff to Col. I. G. Kappner, Memphis,TN, 30 May1865,CN 181,box2, LettersandReportsReceived,Ser.2842,Headquarters, PostandDefensesof Memphis,No. 181,RCS393, Pt. 2, NARA [CS8517FSSP];SpecialOrderNo. 138:Col. I. G. Kappner; Circular: Col I. G. Kappner, Memphis,TN, 31 July1865,Issuances, Box 40, RegimentalBooksandPapers,59thUSCt USCT,ColoredTroopsDivision,RG94, NARA [G-217FSSP].Emphasis is Kappner's. 27. Capt.Chas.P.Brownto Col. I. G. Kappner, Memphis,TN, 21 June1865,C #179, LettersReceived,Ser.2821, Ft. Pickering,No. 179, RG 393, Pt. 2, NARA ICS1830 FSSP]. 28. Col. I. G. Kappnerto Bvt. Brig.Gen. W. H. Morgan,Ft. Pickering,l N, 13 Sept. This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions YOUROLDFATHERABELINCOLN 127 1865,Box2, K E 110DWT1865,LettersReceived,Ser.2869,Districtof WestTN, No. 183,RG 393,pt. 2, NARA [C-2218FSSP1. 29. SpecialOrderNo. 240, Bvt.Maj.Gen.J. E. Smith,MemphislTN, 24 Sept. 1865, Issuances,Box 40, RegimentalBooksand PapersUSCT,59th USCI RG 94, NARA [G-217ESSP];Bvt.Brig.Gen. BenjaminP.RunkleCircular,n.p. n.l. [entetedin vol. betweenordersof 28 Feb.and21 Mar.18661,vol. l 5 i 1p. 241SpeciaiOrdersandCirculars of Memphis,RG 105 forthe Subdistrict Commissioner Issued,Ser.3523, Subassistant NARA [A-6495FSSP1+ 30. Affidavitof CharlesSwear,Robt.R. Church,andJohnGreen,in Lt.S. S. Garrett to Maj.Wm.L.Porter,Memphis,TN, 17Feb.1866,Box72,AffidavitsandStatements MemphisTN, RG 105,NARA[A-6586FSSP]+ of Freedmen, Ser.3545,ProvostMarshal p. 166. Delegation,Report, Testimonyof H. G. DentbeforeCongressional wassentto Memphisto allayfearsof a black 31. Onewhiteregiment,the 11thMissouri, to be scheduledforChristmasof 1865.However,the soldiersproved uprising-rumored that they wereremovedseveraldaysafterthey to be so disruptiveanduncontrollable arrived.Indeed,comparedto white troops,manyobserversthoughtthe blacksoldiers wellbehaved.See, e.g., Bvt.Maj.Gen.JnoE.Smithto Bvt.Brig.Gen. wereremarkably Wm. D. Whipple,Memphis,TN., 9 Jan. 1865,Vol. 1/3 DWT,pp. 204, Lettersand Telegrams Sent,Ser.2865,Districtof WestTN, RG393, Pt. 2, NARA [C-2237FSSP]Lt. Col. A. Von Schraderto Brig.Gen. W. D. Whipple,Mobile,AL, 31 Jan. 1866 Vol.53/95DT,pp.38-51, ReportsSent, Ser.1056,lnspector,Recordsof StaffOfficers, of TN (P), RG 393, Pt. andDivisionandDepartment Department of the Cumberland I, NARA [C-89aFSSP].QuotesarefromGol. I. G. Kappnerto Bvt.Brig.Gen. W. H. TN, 13Sept.1865,Box2, KE 110DWT1865,LettersReceived Morgan,Ft.Pickering, Ser.2869,Districtof WestTN, No. 183,RG 393, pt. 2, NARA IC-2218FSSPI, Bvt. MajorGen.Jno.E. Smithto Bvt. Brig.Gen. Wm. D. Whipple Memphis,TN 9 Jan. Sent,Ser.2865,Districtof West 1866,Vol. 1/3 DWT,pp. 2S, LettersandTelegrams TN, No. 183,RG393, pt. 2, NARA, [C-2237FSSP1. Delegation,Reportp. 166,Testimony ofH.G. DentbeforeCongressional 32. Testimony of Delegation,Report,p. 130.Coi. I. G. Kappner of HenryTaylorbeforeCongressional the 3rdUSCHAat FortPickeringreportedthat"thecomplaintsof continueddischarge althoughhardlya nightpasseswithoutsomefiring of firearmsarecertainlyexaggerated, TN, 13 Sept. to Bvt.Brig.Gen.W.H. Morgan,FortPickering, eastof the fort."Kappner 1865,KE DWT1865,Box2, LettersReceived,Ser.2869,Districtof WestTN No. 183 RG393,NARA lC-2218FSSP]. of PeterRobinsonandHarryBrownbeforethe MilitaryCommissionin 33. Testimony Memphis,TN, 8-22 Dec. 1865,MM3338,CourtMartial the Caseof JohnJ.Magevney, Statementby Sgt.JoeBrown,11 Sept. CaseFiles,ser.15,RG 153,NARA [H-8FSSP]* pp.743-744. Experierace, 1865,in Berlinet al., BlackMilitary p. 245. Delegation,Report, of CaptainA. W.AllynbeforeCongressional 34. Testimony p. 64. Delegation,Report, of EllenDiltsbeforeCongressional 35. Testimony of the events 36. See Ryan,"TheMemphisRiotsof 1866,"foran excellentdescription of EllenandRachelDilts,Dr.S. ]. Quimby,andWilliam of theriot.See alsoTestimonies pp.63-8, 104, 119-21. Delegation,Report, Brazier beforeCongressional of EllenDilts,DavidT.Egbert,andMartinT.RyderbeforeCongtessional 37. Testimony pp.64, 121,252. Delegation,Report, p. 256. Delegation,Report, 38. Testimonyof GeorgeToddbeforeCongressional This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions journal ofsocialhistory fall 1993 128 39. See Ryan,"Memphis Riotsof 1866,"andWaller,"Community, ClassandRace," passim. 40. Testimony of H.N. RankinandThomasLeonard beforeMilitaryCommission OrganizedbyOrderofGeneral Stoneman,Report, pp.313-314.;testimonyof Francis Erickson beforeCongressional Delegation,Report, p. 109. 41. TestimonyofDr. S.J.QuimbybeforeCongressional Delegation, Report, pp.104-105, 107. 42. Testimonyof LouisBennettbeforethe MilitaryCommissionOrganized by Order of MajorGeneralGeorgeStoneman,Report,p. 33Q.Testimonyof TaylorHuntbefore Congressional Delegation,Report,p. 101. Testimonyof ObadiahStockleybeforethe Commission Organized by the Freedmen's Bureau,Report, p. 336. 43. Testimonyof PhillisPremierbeforethe Commission Organized by the Freedmen's Bureau,Report,p. 338.Testimonyof PrimusLanebeforeCongressional Delegation,Report,p. 97. 44. Testimonyof Dr.S. J. QuimbyandCynthiaTownsendbeforeCongressional Delegation,Report, pp. 107,163. 45. The rapesof thesewomenarediscussedin HerbertG. Gutman,TheBkxck Family in Slavery andFreedoms 1750-1925(NewYork,1976),pp.24-28. Testimonyof Frances ThompsonandLucySmithbeforeCongressional Delegation,Report, pp. 19S197. 46. Testimony of LucyXbbsandCynthiaTownsendbeforeCongressional Delegation Report, pp. 161, 163;see alsoTestimonyof HarrietArmour,pp. 176-177. 47. Testimony of CynthiaTownsend, MaryJordan,andJ.M.RandolphbeforeCongressionalDelegation,Report,pp. 125, 163,23F235. Testimonyof W. B. Greenlawbefore the MilitaryCommissionOrganized by Orderof MajorGeneralStoneman,Report,p. 316. 48. Litwack,Beenin theStormSoLong,pp.280-281. 49. MemphisDailyAvalarlche, 5 May1866,p. 2, ascitedin Holmes,"Effects of theMemphisRaceRiot,"p. 71. Testimonyof AustinCottonbeforeCongressional Delegation, Report, p. 102. This content downloaded from 130.86.12.250 on Sat, 10 Aug 2013 14:23:11 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 8:53 < Back Assignment Details ARC Sp21 HIST 310 LEC 13033 Collins Instructions for the review 1. 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