What are forms according to Plato? Textbook section 6.2, p.282

What is Descartes doubt? Textbook, p. 284

• Summarize and evaluate Locke's case against innate ideas. Does he successfully show that innate ideas do not exist? 
• Assess Locke's argument that we can have knowledge of an external world despite our being directly aware only of sense data. Do you agree with him, or do you side with his critics who say that we can know only the contents of our minds? 
• Evaluate arguments for and against Berkeley's subjective idealism. Do you accept or reject his theory? Why or why not?

How is Kant's theory of knowledge different from rationalism, empiricism, and skepticism?

• In what way is Kant's view a "Copernican revolution"?

PHILOSOPHY.

1. What are forms, according to Plato? Textbook section 6.2, p.282

ANSWER

According to Plato, forms, also known as ideas, are designs of everything that exists and resides only in the eternal world and is penetrated by reason. According to him, the actual world is a world of ideas or forms which are universal. Plato argues that we can only acquire knowledge by reasoning.  Plato uses an example of courage; we can access the state of courage because we know what courage is; through this, we can acquire the knowledge and use it to praise or commend a courageous instance. Furthermore, Plato uses a  table to explain more about forms; he argues that through reason, the form of a table can be accessed; thus, we can know the real template of any table. Through this, we understand the features of nature hence use the understanding to make deductions on tables. Plato, a rationalist, argues that the knowledge of forms or immaterial ideals was inborn. We acquired the knowledge before our present lives, and to find them, we have to reason and remember what we previously knew.

2. What is Descartes's doubt? Textbook, p. 284

     ANSWER

Descartes doubt is an assumption that knowledge always requires certainty; for all beliefs to be considered to beknowledge, people must be sure of them by ensuring they are supported beyond all possible doubt. During Descartes's time, the era of scholars disregarding old ideological structures,  the world was upside down with different ideas, religious doctrines, and traditional attitudes. Descartes hoped that knowledge could be awarded a foundation just like mathematics. He observes that he thought he knew many things which appeared as false, so he later decides to form a firm foundation while doubting all beliefs except those that are absolutely certain hence can’t be doubted. Descartes doubts all beliefs based on sense experience. He explains this using his argument. Our dreams can seem like reality, and in plans, we are not always aware that we are dreaming, so we may be dreaming though can’t be sure of things we believe we know via our senses.

3. Summarize and evaluate Locke's case against innate ideas. Does he successfully show that innate ideas do not exist?

 ANSWER

Locke opposes rationalism and the notion that people are born with innate principles; Locke argues no universal principles. Even. Even if the universal principles were present, they would have risen through sense experience and not in birth. He replies to the rationalist argument that everyone seem to have universal principles like the truth of knowledge; the ability must be inborn. The mind is a clean white paper and doesn’t come with ideas and expertise through birth. It is acquired through sense experience. Through experience, the mind obtains all the materials of reason and knowledge. Locke, according to his arguments, successfully shows that innate ideas do not exist. He clearly explains that children do not think because their minds come as a clean slate. He argues that if ideas are imprinted, how can they be innate and unknown.

4. Assess Locke's argument that we can know an external world despite being directly aware only of sense data. Do you agree with him, or do you side with his critics who say that we can know only the contents of our minds?

ANSWER

Locke says we can know an external world despite being aware of just sense data. He argues that we can grasp the concept of infinity by first experiencing finite things and then extending imaginations until we reach the idea of the infinite. Locke says that we must isolate the objects of our experiences, the external objects, and the sensations of those objects (sense data). According to him sensations are resemblances of external things, hence all our sensations do not reflect reality. Objects have two properties objective qualities that are in tangible objects and are independent of our senses. Such as size and personal properties that are in mind and depend on our senses like color. They only exist if someone experiences them choose to disagree with Locke and takes sides with his critics who argue that we only know what our minds contain. This is because he hasn’t granted us a good reason or evidence that sense data proves existence of external reality.

5. Evaluate arguments for and against Berkeley's subjective idealism. Do you accept or reject his theory? Why or why not?

ANSWER

Berkley believes that we can acquire knowledge through sense experience only; he is an empiricist against skeptics. According to him, no material objects are in the external world. The things only exist as sensations or ideas. They exist only because someone perceives them.  According to him, there is a gap between reality sense of experience, and he does away with the gap. Berkley represents a logical argument against material objects. He claims that these objects cannot exist because it is not logical .using commonsense, the materials things continue to be even when no one has them in mind.

However, some critics are against his subjective idealism. His explanation of the unique nature of sense experience is not as good as the commonsense explanation. The fact that he used the God theory does not explain everything to satisfaction. They argue that in as much as they agree that it is impossible to contemplate a thing or object that at the same time is not considered but does disagree with an entity existing unconceived. I choose to reject his theory because sensations present themselves to us, but Berkley argues that they are independent of our minds. His explanations are not clear and don’t have supporting evidence.

6. How is Kant's theory of knowledge different from rationalism, empiricism, and scepticism?

ANSWER

Kant's theory of knowledge is different because he is not entirely a rationalist. Neither is he an empiricist; he appreciates but also sees the error in both rationalism and empiricism. He considers other sources of knowledge, unlike rationalists, empiricists, and skeptics. He agrees with empiricists that knowledge originates from experiences but counters that it doesn’t mean that experience is the only source of knowledge. Even though learning begins with experience, it does not all arise from experience. He also agrees with the rationalists that knowledge can be acquired from reason, but it's not the only source.

Kant corrected the errors of rationalism and empiricism through his theory of knowledge. He expelled skepticism that the views had. He argued that that the source of knowledge is a combination of reason and experiences. Kant addresses the rationalists, empiricists, and skeptics by telling them we know about the world because we constitute it.

7. In what way is Kant's view a "Copernican revolution"?

ANSWER

Kant proposed a revolution in epistemology and compared it with the Copernican revolution in science. Nicolaus Copernicus countered the belief that the sun orbited the earth and came up with a theory that the earth orbited the sun, and he was right. He arrived at his approach by reversing the received view; this gave Kant the idea of starting his revolution by changing the traditional thoughts on knowledge. For a long time, people believed that  knowledge is acquired when the mind conforms to objects; Kant reversed this by proposing the opposite that objects conform to minds